7.3 The Return of Humanism in Chinese Literature
4 min read•july 30, 2024
After Mao's death, Chinese literature shifted from political propaganda to exploring individual experiences. This change marked a return to humanism, focusing on personal thoughts and emotions rather than collective ideology.
Writers delved into themes like love, loss, and identity, challenging the idea that art should serve political purposes. This new approach paved the way for more diverse and introspective works, reflecting China's changing society.
Humanism in Post-Mao Literature
Defining Humanism
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- Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance emphasizing the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively
- Prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism and empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition
- In the context of Chinese literature, humanism refers to a focus on the individual's thoughts, feelings, and experiences, as opposed to the collective or political ideology
Resurgence of Humanism in Post-Mao Literature
- The resurgence of humanism in post-Mao Chinese literature marked a significant shift from the politically-oriented works of the era, which primarily served as propaganda tools
- The return to humanism allowed writers to explore the complexities of the human condition, delving into themes such as love, loss, desire, and the in life
- This humanistic approach to literature challenged the prevailing notion that art should serve a political purpose
- Paved the way for a more diverse and introspective body of work, such as the movement (shanghen wenxue) and the (menglongshi)
Features of Humanist Literature
Focus on the Individual's Inner World
- Humanist literature in the post-Mao period is characterized by a focus on the individual's inner world, including their thoughts, emotions, and personal experiences
- Writers often employ introspective and psychological narratives to explore the complexities of the human mind and the challenges of navigating a rapidly changing society
- Examples include the works of , such as "To Live" (Huozhe) and "Chronicle of a Blood Merchant" (Xu Sanguan mai xue ji), which delve into the inner lives of their protagonists
Common Themes and Subjects
- Common themes in humanist literature include love, desire, , , and the and meaning in life
- Many works feature characters who are struggling to reconcile their personal desires and aspirations with the expectations and constraints of society
- For example, 's "Love Must Not Be Forgotten" (Ai, shi buneng wangji de) explores the tension between personal desires and societal expectations through the story of a woman's lifelong love affair
Experimental Form and Style
- Humanist literature also tends to be more experimental in form and style compared to the works of the Cultural Revolution era
- Writers employ techniques such as , , and to capture the inner workings of the human mind
- Examples include Can Xue's surrealist short stories, which use dream-like imagery and fragmented narratives to explore the subconscious minds of her characters
Focus Shift: Ideology to Individuality
Rejection of Politicized Literature
- During the Cultural Revolution, Chinese literature was dominated by works that served as propaganda tools, promoting political ideology and the cult of personality surrounding Mao Zedong
- In the post-Mao period, writers began to reject this politicized approach to literature, instead focusing on the individual's experiences and emotions
- This shift allowed writers to explore a wider range of themes and subjects, including love, desire, alienation, and the search for meaning in life
Introspective and Psychological Approach
- The emphasis on individual experiences and emotions led to a more introspective and psychological approach to literature, with writers delving into the inner worlds of their characters
- This shift in focus reflected broader changes in Chinese society, as people began to question the dominant political ideology and seek greater personal freedom and self-expression
- For example, 's novel "Song of Everlasting Sorrow" (Chang hen ge) explores the psychological impact of historical events on the lives of ordinary people in Shanghai
Significance of Humanism in China's Transformation
Challenging Dominant Ideology
- The return to humanism in Chinese literature played a crucial role in the country's social and cultural transformation in the post-Mao period
- By focusing on the individual's experiences and emotions, humanist literature challenged the dominant political ideology and the notion that art should serve a purely political purpose
- This shift in literary focus contributed to a broader cultural movement that emphasized personal freedom, self-expression, and the value of the individual
Reflecting Societal Changes
- Humanist literature provided a space for writers and readers to explore the complexities of the human condition and to grapple with the challenges of living in a rapidly changing society
- The popularity of humanist literature among readers reflected a growing desire for works that spoke to their own experiences and emotions, rather than simply promoting a political agenda
- The return to humanism in literature can be seen as part of a larger trend towards greater openness and diversity in Chinese society, as people sought to break free from the constraints of the past and forge new identities and ways of life
Shaping Cultural Discourse
- The resurgence of humanism in post-Mao literature had a profound impact on the cultural discourse in China
- By challenging the dominant political ideology and emphasizing the value of the individual, humanist writers helped to shape a new cultural landscape that was more diverse, introspective, and open to different perspectives
- This shift in cultural discourse paved the way for further social and political reforms in the decades that followed, as Chinese society continued to grapple with the legacy of the Mao era and the challenges of modernization
Key Terms to Review (27)
Alienation: Alienation refers to a feeling of disconnection or estrangement from oneself, society, or the surrounding world. It manifests in literature as characters experiencing isolation, loss of identity, or a sense of powerlessness against larger societal forces. This theme often explores the impact of modernity and cultural shifts on individuals, revealing their struggles to find meaning and belonging.
Chinese Literature Today: Chinese literature today encompasses the diverse and dynamic body of literary works produced in China and among Chinese communities worldwide since the late 20th century. This contemporary landscape reflects the return to humanist themes, the evolution of women's writing, and the emergence of new voices that challenge traditional narratives, emphasizing personal and social experiences amidst rapid modernization and globalization.
Confucianism: Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius, emphasizing moral integrity, social harmony, and the importance of education and family relationships. It advocates for a society grounded in respect for hierarchy, filial piety, and the cultivation of virtue, which directly influences various aspects of Chinese culture, including literature, governance, and personal conduct.
Cultural Revolution: The Cultural Revolution was a sociopolitical movement in China from 1966 to 1976 initiated by Mao Zedong to reinforce communist ideology and purge remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society. It had profound impacts on various aspects of Chinese culture, literature, and society, leading to significant shifts in how these were perceived and represented.
Disillusionment: Disillusionment refers to the feeling of disappointment that arises when reality does not meet one’s expectations, leading to a loss of naive beliefs or ideals. In the context of literature, particularly during the return of humanism in Chinese literature, disillusionment reflects a critical reassessment of traditional values and social constructs, often highlighting the gap between personal ideals and societal realities.
Existential philosophy: Existential philosophy is a branch of thought that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice, often exploring themes of meaning, absurdity, and the human condition. This philosophical movement challenges traditional values and norms, suggesting that meaning is not inherent in life but must be created by each individual through their choices and actions. The focus on personal experience and the subjective nature of reality connects deeply with ideas of humanism, as it recognizes the importance of human agency in crafting one's destiny.
Existentialism: Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice. It asserts that individuals are responsible for creating their own meaning and purpose in a world that may seem indifferent or even absurd. This perspective aligns with the themes of humanism, particularly in how it values personal experience and subjective interpretation, allowing for a rich exploration of the human condition.
Fragmentation: Fragmentation refers to the process of breaking down coherent structures, ideas, or narratives into disjointed or non-linear components. This concept is crucial in understanding how modern and contemporary literature reflects the complexities of identity, society, and culture in an increasingly globalized world. In literature, fragmentation can highlight the chaotic nature of human experience, portraying characters and situations in a way that often challenges traditional storytelling forms.
Individuality: Individuality refers to the quality or character of being an individual, distinct from others, and expressing one's unique personality, thoughts, and feelings. This concept emphasizes the importance of personal identity and self-expression, often standing in contrast to collective identities or social norms. In literature and culture, individuality is a powerful theme that often explores the tension between personal freedom and societal expectations.
Lu Xun: Lu Xun was a prominent Chinese writer, considered one of the most influential figures in modern Chinese literature. His works reflect the social and cultural turmoil of early 20th-century China and critique traditional Chinese society, paving the way for modern literary forms and themes.
May Fourth Movement: The May Fourth Movement was a cultural and political movement that emerged in China in 1919, characterized by a wave of intellectual and literary activism that sought to challenge traditional values and promote new ideas influenced by Western thought. This movement played a crucial role in shaping modern Chinese literature and culture, addressing issues like nationalism, anti-imperialism, and social reform.
Misty Poets: Misty Poets, a collective term for a group of Chinese poets emerging in the late 1970s and early 1980s, are known for their abstract and ambiguous style, which reflects the complexities of personal expression during a time of political change. Their poetry often features rich imagery and an introspective tone, marking a shift away from the direct political themes of earlier literature, allowing for a more individualistic exploration of human experience and emotions.
Moral criticism: Moral criticism refers to an evaluative approach that assesses literature and cultural works based on their ethical implications, social messages, and moral lessons. This type of criticism emphasizes the importance of virtue and morality in narratives, suggesting that literature should promote positive values and contribute to societal betterment.
New humanism: New humanism is a philosophical and cultural movement that emerged in the early 20th century, emphasizing the value and agency of human beings while critiquing the strict determinism of earlier ideologies. This movement sought to reinstate individual dignity and moral responsibility within the context of modern society, which was seen as increasingly alienated and mechanized. It draws from classical humanist traditions but adapts them to address contemporary issues, promoting an ethical framework that values human experiences and relationships.
Non-linear narratives: Non-linear narratives are storytelling techniques that do not follow a traditional chronological order, instead presenting events out of sequence or interweaving multiple timelines. This approach can create a more complex and layered understanding of characters and themes, allowing readers to engage with the story in a more dynamic way. In literature, especially during periods of humanism, such narratives challenge the reader to think critically about the connections between past and present experiences.
Post-humanism: Post-humanism is a philosophical and cultural movement that questions the centrality of the human experience, advocating for the consideration of non-human entities and the interconnectedness of all forms of life. It challenges traditional humanist ideals by exploring how technology, ecology, and alternative identities impact our understanding of what it means to be human, suggesting a shift in focus from human-centered narratives to more inclusive perspectives.
Reader-response criticism: Reader-response criticism is a literary theory that emphasizes the role of the reader in creating the meaning of a text. This approach focuses on the individual experiences and interpretations that readers bring to their reading, suggesting that meaning is not solely embedded in the text but is constructed through the interaction between the reader and the text. This theory highlights how personal background, emotions, and perspectives can influence one’s understanding of literature, making the reader an active participant in the storytelling process.
Scar Literature: Scar literature refers to a genre of Chinese literature that emerged in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution, characterized by its focus on personal trauma and the scars left by political turmoil. This literary movement sought to confront and express the painful memories of suffering and loss, providing a space for healing and reflection in a society grappling with its recent past.
Search for identity: The search for identity refers to the ongoing quest individuals or groups undertake to understand their own sense of self, cultural roots, and place within society. This concept often emerges in literature and art, as characters and authors grapple with personal histories, societal expectations, and the broader cultural narratives that shape their lives.
Search for meaning: The search for meaning refers to the quest individuals undertake to find purpose, significance, and understanding in their lives and experiences. This concept often emerges in literature as characters grapple with existential questions, reflecting broader societal issues and the human condition.
Self-exploration: Self-exploration refers to the process of introspection and self-discovery, where individuals delve into their own thoughts, emotions, beliefs, and identities. This journey often leads to a deeper understanding of oneself, enabling personal growth and development, which is particularly relevant in literature that reflects humanist themes and emphasizes individual experience and perspective.
Stream-of-consciousness: Stream-of-consciousness is a narrative technique that captures the continuous flow of thoughts and feelings in a character's mind, often disregarding traditional structure and syntax. This method allows for a deeper exploration of characters’ internal experiences, reflecting the complexity of human consciousness. It connects to broader themes like subjective reality and personal perception, emphasizing how individual experiences shape understanding.
Subjectivity: Subjectivity refers to the way personal experiences, emotions, and perceptions shape an individual's understanding of the world. This concept emphasizes the importance of individual viewpoints and inner feelings in interpreting reality, highlighting the role of personal perspective in literature and culture, particularly during periods of humanism.
The New Yorker China: The New Yorker China refers to the representation of China and its culture in the pages of The New Yorker magazine, which is known for its in-depth reporting, commentary, and cultural critique. This term highlights how Chinese literature and societal issues are portrayed to a Western audience, often reflecting themes of humanism that resonate with broader human experiences.
Wang Anyi: Wang Anyi is a prominent contemporary Chinese author known for her exploration of the complexities of urban life, identity, and the human experience in post-Mao China. Her works often reflect the themes of nostalgia, cultural change, and the struggles of individuals amidst societal transformation, making her a significant voice in modern Chinese literature.
Yu hua: Yu Hua is a contemporary Chinese author known for his distinctive style and exploration of the human condition, often reflecting the socio-political changes in China post-Mao. His works are characterized by their blend of realism and absurdity, highlighting the struggles and resilience of individuals in modern Chinese society.
Zhang jie: Zhang jie refers to the concept of 'section' or 'chapter' in Chinese literature, often used to structure narrative and organize thematic elements within a text. This term plays a significant role in the organization of literary works, allowing for a more nuanced exploration of human experiences and cultural reflections, particularly as humanism resurfaces in modern Chinese literature and as contemporary voices emerge.