Glossary

3.2 Vernacular Literature and Language Reform

4 min read•july 30, 2024

The shift to vernacular Chinese marked a turning point in Chinese literature and culture. Moving away from classical Chinese, writers embraced a more accessible language that reflected everyday speech. This change opened up literature to a wider audience, sparking new ideas and debates.

Vernacular literature became a powerful tool for and nation-building. It tackled issues like gender roles and inequality, helping shape modern Chinese identity. This literary revolution played a crucial role in the May Fourth and New Culture movements, driving China's modernization efforts.

Shift to Vernacular Chinese

Classical Chinese and Its Limitations

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  • Classical Chinese, or , served as the written language in China for over two millennia
    • Characterized by concise grammar, lack of punctuation, and use of literary allusions and references
    • Difficult for the general population to understand and learn, limiting accessibility to education and knowledge
  • Vernacular Chinese, or , emerged as a written language in the early 20th century
    • Used the grammar and vocabulary of spoken Mandarin Chinese, making it more accessible to the general population
    • Gained prominence during the of 1919, with intellectuals advocating for its use in education, literature, and official documents

Transition and Adoption of Vernacular Chinese

  • The transition from classical to vernacular Chinese in literature was gradual
    • Some writers experimented with a mix of both styles before fully adopting the vernacular
    • Early examples include "A Madman's Diary" (1918) by , considered the first modern Chinese short story written in vernacular Chinese
  • The use of vernacular Chinese in literature allowed for greater accessibility and wider readership
    • More closely resembled the language spoken by the majority of the population
    • Enabled the dissemination of ideas and knowledge to a broader audience, including those previously excluded from classical Chinese education

Language Reform for Literacy

Simplification and Standardization

  • Language reform in early 20th century China aimed to simplify the written language and promote the use of vernacular Chinese
    • Sought to make the written language more accessible to the general population
    • Initiated the simplification of Chinese characters, reducing the number of strokes in complex characters for easier writing and memorization
  • The adoption of vernacular Chinese in education helped to increase literacy rates
    • Easier for students to learn and understand compared to classical Chinese
    • Promoted the standardization of the written language across different regions and dialects

Modernization and National Unity

  • The use of vernacular Chinese in official documents and government communications helped to bridge the gap between the ruling elite and the common people
    • Promoted a sense of national unity by creating a shared language and
    • Facilitated the dissemination of new ideas, scientific knowledge, and international communication
  • Language reform was seen as a necessary step towards modernization
    • Enabled the spread of education and knowledge to a wider population
    • Contributed to the development of a modern Chinese national consciousness and shared cultural identity

Vernacular Literature's Impact

Democratization of Knowledge and Culture

  • The use of vernacular Chinese in literature allowed for the dissemination of ideas and knowledge to a wider audience
    • Included those who were previously excluded from classical Chinese education
    • Addressed social issues and concerns relevant to the lives of ordinary people, promoting a sense of shared experience and cultural identity
  • The accessibility of vernacular literature encouraged the growth of public discourse and debate
    • More people were able to engage with and respond to the ideas presented in these works
    • Contributed to the development of political and social movements, such as the May Fourth Movement and the

Social Critique and National Identity

  • Vernacular literature often served as a vehicle for social critique and the exploration of modern Chinese identity
    • Writers used the accessible language to address issues such as gender roles, social inequalities, and the impact of modernization on traditional ways of life
    • Examples include "Miss Sophia's Diary" (1928) by Ding Ling, which explored themes of love, sexuality, and gender roles, and "Spring Silkworms" (1932) by Mao Dun, depicting the hardships faced by rural farmers
  • The democratization of knowledge and culture through vernacular literature contributed to the growth of a modern Chinese national consciousness
    • Helped to create a shared cultural and linguistic identity across different regions and social classes
    • Played a role in the development of political and social movements that shaped modern China

Key Works of Vernacular Literature

Short Stories and Novellas

  • "A Madman's Diary" (1918) by Lu Xun, considered the first modern Chinese short story written in vernacular Chinese
    • Critiqued traditional Chinese society and culture, setting the stage for the vernacular literature movement
  • "" (1921-1922) by Lu Xun, a novella that uses satire and irony to expose the weaknesses and failures of the Chinese national character
    • Highlighted the need for self-reflection and change in the face of modernization and foreign influence
  • "Spring Silkworms" (1932) by Mao Dun, a short story that depicts the hardships faced by rural farmers and the impact of modernization on traditional ways of life
    • Shed light on the social and economic inequalities in rural China during the early 20th century

Novels and Diaries

  • "Miss Sophia's Diary" (1928) by Ding Ling, a pioneering work of feminist literature in China
    • Written in the form of a diary, exploring themes of love, sexuality, and gender roles
    • Challenged traditional gender norms and expectations, giving voice to the experiences of modern Chinese women
  • "Camel Xiangzi" (1937) by Lao She, a novel that follows the life of a rickshaw puller in Beijing
    • Highlighted the struggles of the urban poor and the social inequalities of the time
    • Provided a vivid portrayal of the changing social and economic landscape of early 20th century China

Key Terms to Review (18)

Anti-imperialism: Anti-imperialism is a political stance opposing imperialism, which involves the domination of one nation over others through territorial acquisition, economic control, or cultural influence. This ideology emerged prominently in the early 20th century as countries and groups sought to resist foreign domination and assert their own national identity and sovereignty. It relates to various movements and cultural shifts that aimed to challenge colonial powers and promote self-determination.
Baihua: Baihua, or vernacular Chinese, refers to the everyday spoken language that emerged as a written form during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This shift towards baihua marked a significant departure from the classical Chinese language, making literature more accessible and relatable to the general population. The rise of baihua was closely tied to movements advocating for language reform and played a crucial role in modernizing Chinese literature and culture.
Call to Arms: A call to arms is a rallying cry that urges individuals or groups to take action, often in the context of defending a cause or engaging in a significant struggle. This concept often resonates in literature, where writers use it to inspire readers or characters to rise against oppression or societal issues. It plays a crucial role in shaping narratives and movements, especially within vernacular literature and language reform, where authors seek to awaken consciousness and provoke social change.
Cultural Awakening: Cultural awakening refers to a period of renewed interest in and revitalization of a society's cultural identity, values, and practices. It often encompasses a movement towards embracing native languages, literature, and artistic expressions, leading to significant reforms in how culture is perceived and practiced. This phenomenon can serve as a response to external influences or internal societal changes that call for a reassessment of cultural heritage and identity.
Cultural Identity: Cultural identity refers to the sense of belonging to a particular cultural group, shaped by shared values, beliefs, traditions, and experiences. It encompasses how individuals perceive themselves and how they are perceived by others within the context of their culture, influencing their social interactions and contributions to society.
Feminist literary criticism: Feminist literary criticism is a critical approach that examines literature through the lens of feminist theory, exploring how texts reflect, reinforce, or challenge the roles and representations of women in society. It seeks to uncover the ways in which gender, power dynamics, and societal norms influence both the creation and interpretation of literary works.
Hu Shi: Hu Shi was a prominent Chinese philosopher, essayist, and reformer who played a key role in the promotion of vernacular literature and language reform in early 20th century China. His advocacy for using everyday language in literature was pivotal in the literary revolution that sought to modernize Chinese literature, making it more accessible and relatable to the general public.
Linguistic nationalism: Linguistic nationalism is the idea that a shared language serves as a foundation for national identity and unity. It promotes the use of a particular language as a means to foster cultural pride, social cohesion, and political legitimacy, often during times of cultural and political transformation. This concept is closely tied to movements that advocate for language reform and the development of vernacular literature as expressions of national identity.
Literary nationalism: Literary nationalism is the expression of national identity through literature, often emphasizing cultural, historical, and linguistic elements that foster a sense of belonging and unity among a nation’s people. This concept emerged as writers sought to reflect and promote their distinct cultural heritage, especially during periods of social and political reform, influencing the vernacular literature movement and language reform efforts. It played a crucial role in shaping modern literature by emphasizing local language and traditions as vehicles for national pride and identity.
Lu Xun: Lu Xun was a prominent Chinese writer, considered one of the most influential figures in modern Chinese literature. His works reflect the social and cultural turmoil of early 20th-century China and critique traditional Chinese society, paving the way for modern literary forms and themes.
May Fourth Movement: The May Fourth Movement was a cultural and political movement that emerged in China in 1919, characterized by a wave of intellectual and literary activism that sought to challenge traditional values and promote new ideas influenced by Western thought. This movement played a crucial role in shaping modern Chinese literature and culture, addressing issues like nationalism, anti-imperialism, and social reform.
New Culture Movement: The New Culture Movement was a significant cultural and intellectual revolution in China during the early 20th century that advocated for modernization, the use of vernacular language, and a rejection of traditional Confucian values. It aimed to reform Chinese society through new ideas about democracy, science, and individualism, heavily influencing the direction of literature and culture in Republican China.
Postcolonial theory: Postcolonial theory is an analytical framework that examines the cultural, political, and social legacies left behind by colonialism and imperialism. It explores how these legacies shape the identities, literature, and cultural practices of formerly colonized nations, revealing the complexities of power dynamics and resistance narratives in a globalized world.
Republican Era Reforms: Republican Era Reforms refer to a series of significant social, political, and cultural changes in China during the early 20th century, particularly after the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. These reforms aimed to modernize the country by addressing issues like language, education, and literature, with a strong emphasis on promoting vernacular language and literature to foster national identity and engagement among the populace.
Social critique: Social critique is the practice of examining and analyzing societal issues, norms, and structures to highlight injustices and advocate for change. In modern Chinese literature, this concept often emerges as a response to historical, political, and cultural contexts, reflecting the struggles and aspirations of individuals and communities.
The fall of the Qing dynasty: The fall of the Qing dynasty refers to the collapse of China's last imperial dynasty in 1911, marking the end of over two millennia of imperial rule in China. This significant event led to the establishment of the Republic of China and was driven by a mix of internal strife, foreign pressures, and social change, which laid the groundwork for vernacular literature and language reform as part of a broader movement toward modernization.
The True Story of Ah Q: The True Story of Ah Q is a short story written by Lu Xun, published in 1921, that serves as a satirical commentary on Chinese society and its cultural identity during the early 20th century. This work is significant for its exploration of the themes of self-deception, social critique, and the impact of modernity on traditional values, marking a pivotal moment in the development of modern Chinese literature.
Wenyan: Wenyan, often translated as 'literary language', refers to the classical written Chinese language that was used in formal writing and literature for centuries. It is characterized by its complex grammar and vocabulary, making it distinct from the vernacular spoken languages. Wenyan was dominant until the early 20th century, when a push for language reform aimed to make literature more accessible and encourage the use of vernacular Chinese in written form.
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