Glossary

1.3 Major Literary Movements and Their Social Contexts

8 min read•july 30, 2024

emerged from a tumultuous period of social and political change. The sparked a literary revolution, promoting vernacular language and Western ideas. This set the stage for diverse literary movements that reflected China's evolving cultural landscape.

From to avant-garde experimentation, Chinese writers grappled with modernization, political upheaval, and cultural identity. These movements shaped a rich literary tradition that continues to evolve, reflecting China's complex journey through the 20th century and beyond.

Literary Movements in Modern China

The May Fourth Movement and its Advocates

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  • The May Fourth Movement (1915-1927) advocated for vernacular language, realism, and Western ideas
  • Key figures included Chen Duxiu, Hu Shi, and
  • Chen Duxiu, a leading intellectual, founded the influential journal which promoted cultural and literary reform
  • Hu Shi, a pioneer of vernacular literature, argued for the use of everyday language in writing to make literature more accessible to the masses
  • Lu Xun, often considered the father of modern Chinese literature, wrote groundbreaking works such as "A Madman's Diary" and "The True Story of Ah Q" that critiqued Chinese society and traditional values

Urban Experience and Experimentation: New Sensationists and Avant-garde Fiction

  • The (1920s-1930s), led by Mu Shiying and Liu Na'ou, emphasized , exoticism, and in their works
    • Mu Shiying's short stories, such as "Shanghai Foxtrot," captured the glamour and decadence of Shanghai's jazz age
    • Liu Na'ou's novels, like "City of Shanghai," explored the psychological and sensory experiences of urban life
  • (1980s-1990s) experimented with narrative techniques, fragmentation, and absurdity
    • Notable writers included Ma Yuan, Can Xue, and Yu Hua
    • Ma Yuan's works, such as "Fabrication," subverted traditional narrative structures and blurred the lines between reality and fiction
    • Can Xue's surreal and dreamlike stories, like "The Embroidered Shoes," challenged conventional notions of plot and character
    • Yu Hua's novels, such as "Chronicle of a Blood Merchant," combined dark humor with a critique of Chinese society and history

Socialist Realism and Revolutionary Literature

  • Socialist Realism (1940s-1970s) promoted literature that served the interests of the working class and the Communist Party
  • Notable writers included Zhao Shuli and Ding Ling
    • Zhao Shuli's novels, like "Changes in Li Village," depicted the lives of peasants and the transformative power of the Communist revolution
    • Ding Ling's works, such as "The Sun Shines Over the Sanggan River," celebrated the achievements of the Communist Party and the emancipation of women
  • Socialist Realism dominated Chinese literature for decades, shaping the creation and reception of works that adhered to official ideology

Post-Mao Literature: Misty Poets, Scar Literature, and Root-seeking

  • The (1970s-1980s), such as Bei Dao and Gu Cheng, used and to express disillusionment with the Cultural Revolution
    • Bei Dao's poems, like "The Answer," became anthems of the pro-democracy movement and expressed a sense of alienation and yearning for change
    • Gu Cheng's poetry, such as "A Generation," grappled with the trauma and disillusionment of the Cultural Revolution era
  • (late 1970s) depicted the suffering and traumas experienced during the Cultural Revolution
    • Representative works include "The Scar" by Lu Xinhua and "Class Counsellor" by Liu Xinwu
    • These works exposed the human cost of the Cultural Revolution and the need for healing and reconciliation
  • (1980s) explored traditional Chinese culture and values in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution
    • Key figures included Han Shaogong and A Cheng
    • Han Shaogong's works, like "Pa Pa Pa," drew on folklore and mythology to examine the relationship between tradition and modernity
    • A Cheng's novella "The King of Chess" used the game of chess as a metaphor for the cultural and political struggles of the post-Mao era

Literary Movements and Social Context

The May Fourth Movement and China's Modernization

  • The May Fourth Movement emerged in response to China's political instability, foreign imperialism, and the need for cultural modernization following the end of the Qing Dynasty
  • The movement was triggered by student protests on May 4, 1919, against the Treaty of Versailles, which awarded German concessions in China to Japan
  • Intellectuals called for a rejection of traditional Confucian values and the adoption of Western ideas of democracy, science, and individualism
  • The vernacular language movement, led by Hu Shi and Chen Duxiu, sought to make literature more accessible and relevant to the masses

Urban Culture and Modernity: New Sensationists and Republican-era Shanghai

  • The New Sensationists reflected the cosmopolitanism and decadence of Shanghai's urban culture during the Republican era
  • Shanghai, as a treaty port and center of foreign influence, became a symbol of modernity, consumerism, and cultural hybridity
  • New Sensationist writers explored the psychological and sensory experiences of urban life, often focusing on the lives of the urban bourgeoisie and the influence of Western culture
  • Their works captured the excitement, alienation, and moral ambiguity of life in a rapidly modernizing city

Socialist Realism and the Communist Revolution

  • Socialist Realism developed under the influence of Mao Zedong's Yan'an Talks on Literature and Art (1942), which called for literature to serve the revolutionary cause
  • Mao argued that literature should reflect the lives and struggles of the working class and promote socialist values
  • Writers were expected to create works that glorified the Communist Party, the peasantry, and the process of socialist transformation
  • Socialist Realist works often depicted heroic workers, peasants, and soldiers overcoming obstacles and contributing to the building of a new society

Post-Mao Literature and the Legacy of the Cultural Revolution

  • The Misty Poets and Scar Literature arose as a reaction to the repression and disillusionment of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)
    • The Cultural Revolution, launched by Mao Zedong, sought to purge Chinese society of "revisionist" elements and reassert Communist ideology
    • The period was marked by , social upheaval, and the suppression of intellectual and artistic freedom
    • Misty Poets used obscure and symbolic language to express their sense of alienation, confusion, and yearning for change in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution
    • Scar Literature directly confronted the trauma and suffering experienced during the Cultural Revolution, exposing the human cost of political fanaticism
  • Root-seeking Literature emerged as a means of rediscovering and reaffirming Chinese cultural identity after the Cultural Revolution's assault on traditional values
    • The Cultural Revolution had sought to eradicate traditional Chinese culture, denouncing it as "feudal" and "backward"
    • Root-seeking writers turned to China's cultural heritage, including folklore, mythology, and religious traditions, as a source of identity and meaning
    • Their works explored the tensions between tradition and modernity, the rural and the urban, and the individual and the collective in post-Mao China

Avant-garde Fiction and the Reform Era

  • Avant-garde Fiction reflected the social and cultural upheavals of the Reform and Opening Up period (1978-onwards), as well as the influence of Western postmodernist literature
  • The Reform and Opening Up, initiated by Deng Xiaoping, marked a shift towards economic liberalization, increased foreign investment, and greater cultural exchange with the West
  • Avant-garde writers experimented with narrative techniques, fragmentation, and absurdity to capture the disorienting experience of rapid social change and the influx of new ideas
  • Their works often challenged official narratives, exposed the contradictions of Chinese society, and pushed the boundaries of literary form and content

Influence of Literary Movements on Modern Chinese Literature

The Lasting Impact of the May Fourth Movement

  • The May Fourth Movement laid the foundation for modern Chinese literature by promoting vernacular language, realism, and engagement with Western literary forms
  • The adoption of the vernacular language (baihua) as the medium of literary expression made literature more accessible to a wider audience and facilitated the development of new genres, such as the modern novel and
  • The emphasis on realism encouraged writers to depict the lives and struggles of ordinary people, exposing social problems and advocating for change
  • The engagement with Western literary forms, such as the novel, short story, and essay, expanded the range of literary possibilities and introduced new techniques and themes into Chinese literature

Expanding the Boundaries: New Sensationists and Avant-garde Fiction

  • The New Sensationists expanded the thematic and stylistic range of modern Chinese literature, introducing urban themes and psychological depth
    • Their focus on the urban experience, particularly the glamour and decadence of Shanghai, added a new dimension to Chinese literature, which had previously been dominated by rural and political themes
    • Their exploration of psychological interiority and sensory experience paved the way for more introspective and experimental forms of writing
  • Avant-garde Fiction pushed the boundaries of literary form and content, paving the way for greater experimentation and diversity in contemporary Chinese literature
    • Avant-garde writers challenged traditional narrative structures, blurred the lines between reality and fiction, and incorporated elements of absurdity and fragmentation into their works
    • Their experimentation with language, form, and subject matter opened up new possibilities for literary expression and inspired subsequent generations of writers

The Dominance and Legacy of Socialist Realism

  • Socialist Realism dominated Chinese literature for decades, shaping the creation and reception of works that adhered to official ideology
  • The emphasis on creating works that served the interests of the working class and the Communist Party limited the range of acceptable themes and styles, leading to a uniformity in literary production
  • Socialist Realist works often followed predictable plots and employed stereotypical characters, glorifying the achievements of the Communist revolution and the transformation of Chinese society
  • However, some writers managed to produce works of artistic merit within the constraints of Socialist Realism, using the form to critique social problems or express humanistic values
  • The legacy of Socialist Realism can be seen in the continued influence of political ideology on Chinese literature and the tensions between artistic freedom and official

Post-Mao Literature and the Reassertion of Artistic Freedom

  • The Misty Poets and Scar Literature marked a turning point in post-Mao literature, allowing for greater artistic freedom and the expression of individual experiences
    • These movements broke the monopoly of Socialist Realism and opened up new space for literary experimentation and personal expression
    • Misty Poets used obscure and symbolic language to express their sense of alienation and yearning for change, challenging the official narrative of the Cultural Revolution
    • Scar Literature directly confronted the trauma and suffering of the Cultural Revolution, giving voice to the experiences of ordinary people and exposing the human cost of political fanaticism
  • Root-seeking Literature contributed to the revival and reinterpretation of traditional Chinese culture in modern literature
    • Root-seeking writers turned to China's cultural heritage as a source of identity and meaning, exploring the tensions between tradition and modernity in post-Mao China
    • Their works helped to reconnect Chinese literature with its cultural roots and opened up new possibilities for the creative reinterpretation of traditional forms and themes

The Continuing Evolution of Modern Chinese Literature

  • The interplay and tensions between these movements have shaped the richness and complexity of modern Chinese literature, reflecting the nation's changing social, political, and cultural landscapes
  • Each movement has contributed to the ongoing evolution of Chinese literature, introducing new themes, forms, and perspectives
  • The legacy of these movements can be seen in the works of contemporary Chinese writers, who continue to grapple with questions of identity, modernity, and artistic freedom
  • The development of modern Chinese literature has been marked by a constant negotiation between tradition and innovation, the individual and the collective, and the local and the global
  • As Chinese society continues to evolve and new challenges emerge, Chinese literature will undoubtedly continue to reflect and shape the nation's cultural and intellectual life

Key Terms to Review (29)

Avant-garde fiction: Avant-garde fiction refers to a style of writing that pushes the boundaries of traditional narrative forms, often challenging conventions in structure, language, and themes. This genre is closely associated with experimentation and innovation, aiming to provoke thought and evoke new perceptions about literature and society. It reflects the complexities of modernity and is often intertwined with various cultural movements that seek to redefine artistic expression.
Ba Jin: Ba Jin was a prominent Chinese writer and intellectual, known for his influential works during the 20th century, particularly in the context of social and political changes in modern China. His literature often reflects the struggles against traditional societal norms and explores themes of freedom, individuality, and the human condition amid the rapidly evolving landscape of Chinese society.
Censorship: Censorship refers to the suppression or control of information, ideas, or artistic expression deemed objectionable or harmful by authorities. In the context of modern Chinese literature and culture, censorship plays a critical role in shaping narratives, influencing artistic freedom, and controlling public discourse, often reflecting the political climate and societal values of different eras.
Cultural Revolution Literature: Cultural Revolution Literature refers to the body of works produced during China's Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), a tumultuous period marked by political upheaval, social chaos, and a push towards socialist ideology. This literature reflects the experiences, struggles, and ideologies of the time, often emphasizing themes of loyalty to Mao Zedong and the Communist Party while suppressing individual expression. The literature created during this era can be analyzed for its socio-political context, its relationship with other literary movements, and its impact on writers and readers alike.
Family: Family refers to a fundamental social unit that includes individuals related by blood, marriage, or adoption, often serving as the primary context for emotional support, cultural transmission, and socialization. In modern Chinese literature, the concept of family is explored in various ways, reflecting its significance in shaping individual identity and societal dynamics throughout different historical periods.
Free verse poetry: Free verse poetry is a form of poetry that does not adhere to a specific meter or rhyme scheme, allowing poets the freedom to express their thoughts and emotions without the constraints of traditional poetic structures. This style emerged as a reflection of changing cultural attitudes and artistic movements, providing a voice for individual expression and experimentation in literature.
Lu Xun: Lu Xun was a prominent Chinese writer, considered one of the most influential figures in modern Chinese literature. His works reflect the social and cultural turmoil of early 20th-century China and critique traditional Chinese society, paving the way for modern literary forms and themes.
Marxist Literary Criticism: Marxist literary criticism is an approach that examines literature through the lens of Marxist theory, focusing on the relationship between literature and socio-economic class, power dynamics, and historical context. It highlights how literature both reflects and influences societal values, often critiquing the portrayal of class struggles, ideologies, and the effects of capitalism on culture and human relationships. This perspective encourages an understanding of literature as a product of its social conditions, emphasizing that texts cannot be divorced from their historical and economic contexts.
May Fourth Movement: The May Fourth Movement was a cultural and political movement that emerged in China in 1919, characterized by a wave of intellectual and literary activism that sought to challenge traditional values and promote new ideas influenced by Western thought. This movement played a crucial role in shaping modern Chinese literature and culture, addressing issues like nationalism, anti-imperialism, and social reform.
Misty Poets: Misty Poets, a collective term for a group of Chinese poets emerging in the late 1970s and early 1980s, are known for their abstract and ambiguous style, which reflects the complexities of personal expression during a time of political change. Their poetry often features rich imagery and an introspective tone, marking a shift away from the direct political themes of earlier literature, allowing for a more individualistic exploration of human experience and emotions.
Modern Chinese Literature: Modern Chinese literature refers to literary works produced in China from the late 19th century to the present, characterized by a significant transformation in themes, styles, and social contexts due to historical events like the May Fourth Movement and the impact of globalization. This period reflects the struggles of identity, cultural change, and societal issues, connecting deeply with movements like realism, modernism, and diasporic narratives.
Modernist fiction: Modernist fiction is a literary movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by a break from traditional narrative forms and conventions. It reflects the complexities of modern life through fragmented narratives, unreliable narrators, and a focus on the inner thoughts and feelings of characters, often responding to the rapid changes in society, culture, and technology during this period.
National Identity: National identity refers to a sense of belonging to a specific nation, often characterized by shared culture, language, history, and values. This concept plays a crucial role in shaping literature and art, as they often reflect the collective experiences and aspirations of a people, influencing how national identity is articulated and expressed in various forms.
New Sensationists: New Sensationists were a literary movement in early 20th-century China that emphasized immediate experience and sensory perception, often incorporating elements of modernist aesthetics. This group sought to capture the vividness of life through their writing, reflecting the rapid changes in society during that time, such as urbanization and cultural shifts.
New Youth: New Youth was a revolutionary publication and movement that emerged in the early 20th century in China, advocating for modernization, social reform, and the questioning of traditional values. It played a critical role in shaping modern Chinese literature and culture, emphasizing the importance of new ideas, democratic principles, and scientific reasoning, which aligned with various literary movements and reform efforts of the time.
Obscure imagery: Obscure imagery refers to the use of ambiguous, vague, or abstract visual language in literature and art, often challenging the reader's or viewer's perception and interpretation. This technique serves to evoke complex emotions and thoughts, leaving much to the imagination while also reflecting deeper cultural or philosophical themes prevalent in various literary movements.
Opium War: The Opium War refers to two conflicts in the mid-19th century between China and Western powers, primarily Great Britain, over trade disputes, particularly concerning the opium trade. These wars marked a significant turning point in Chinese history, leading to widespread social and political changes that influenced various literary movements and cultural expressions in China during and after this period.
Political Persecution: Political persecution refers to the systematic mistreatment of individuals or groups by a governing authority due to their political beliefs, affiliations, or actions that oppose the ruling regime. This often includes tactics such as imprisonment, torture, exile, or execution aimed at silencing dissent and maintaining control. The implications of political persecution can be deeply felt in the realms of literature and culture, where writers and artists may become targets during times of social upheaval and ideological conflict.
Postcolonialism: Postcolonialism is a critical framework that examines the effects of colonialism on cultures and societies, focusing on the aftermath of colonial rule and the ways in which former colonies navigate their identities, histories, and power dynamics in a globalized world. It highlights the cultural, political, and economic impacts of colonialism, as well as the resistance and redefinitions that emerge in response to colonization. This perspective is crucial for understanding modern Chinese literature, which often grapples with themes of identity, cultural hybridity, and historical trauma as a result of colonial encounters.
Propaganda literature: Propaganda literature refers to written works that aim to influence public opinion or promote specific political ideologies, often through emotional appeals and selective presentation of facts. This type of literature plays a significant role in shaping societal views and behaviors, especially during times of political upheaval or reform. It is often associated with government initiatives or movements that seek to mobilize support for a particular agenda or cause.
Psychological interiority: Psychological interiority refers to the inner thoughts, feelings, and consciousness of characters in literature, providing deep insight into their motivations and emotional landscapes. This concept emphasizes the complexity of individual experiences and subjective realities, often revealing the impact of social, cultural, and historical contexts on personal identity and behavior.
Root-seeking literature: Root-seeking literature refers to a genre in modern Chinese literature that emphasizes a return to traditional culture and values, particularly in the context of social and political upheaval. This literary movement arose as writers sought to reconnect with their cultural roots and explore themes of identity, heritage, and national consciousness, often reflecting on the historical experiences of the Chinese people.
Scar Literature: Scar literature refers to a genre of Chinese literature that emerged in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution, characterized by its focus on personal trauma and the scars left by political turmoil. This literary movement sought to confront and express the painful memories of suffering and loss, providing a space for healing and reflection in a society grappling with its recent past.
Social Criticism: Social criticism refers to the practice of analyzing and evaluating societal structures, norms, and issues, often aiming to promote social change and justice. This form of critique is expressed through various forms of art and literature, shedding light on problems such as inequality, oppression, and corruption. In literature, social criticism often reflects the authors' responses to their contemporary societal conditions and encourages readers to think critically about their world.
Socialist Realism: Socialist realism is an artistic and literary movement that emerged in the Soviet Union in the 1930s, characterized by the portrayal of the lives and struggles of the working class, promoting socialist ideals and the achievements of communism. This approach became a guiding principle for Chinese literature and art, emphasizing the importance of aligning creative expression with the goals of the state and the Communist Party.
Symbolism: Symbolism is a literary device where symbols are used to represent ideas or concepts beyond their literal meaning. It allows writers to convey deeper meanings and evoke emotions by using objects, characters, or events as symbols that stand for something more significant within a cultural or social context. This technique has been widely employed across different periods of literature to express complex themes and ideologies.
Taiwan's Democratization: Taiwan's democratization refers to the process through which Taiwan transitioned from an authoritarian regime under martial law to a vibrant democracy, particularly during the late 20th century. This transformation involved significant political reforms, including the lifting of martial law in 1987, the establishment of multi-party elections, and the promotion of civil liberties, which reshaped Taiwan's social and political landscape. The changes allowed for greater public participation and expression, influencing not only governance but also cultural and literary movements in Taiwan.
The Diary of a Madman: The Diary of a Madman is a short story by Lu Xun that portrays the psychological decline of a man who believes he is being hunted by cannibals, symbolizing the oppressive and cannibalistic nature of traditional Chinese society. This narrative serves as a powerful critique of societal norms and cultural practices during a time of significant historical change in China.
Urban experience: Urban experience refers to the ways in which individuals interact with, perceive, and are influenced by the urban environment, encompassing the cultural, social, and economic aspects of city life. This concept is crucial in understanding the transformation of societies, particularly during periods of rapid industrialization and modernization, as it reflects the complexities of living in densely populated areas characterized by diverse populations, opportunities, and challenges.
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