Social movements are collective efforts to bring about or resist change. They unite people under shared grievances, forge collective identities, and challenge existing power structures through sustained, organized activities like rallies and boycotts.
Movements go through lifecycles of emergence, growth, and decline. Factors influencing their effectiveness include disruptive tactics, persuasive strategies, and the ability to adapt to changing circumstances. Social media has transformed collective action, offering new tools for organizing and mobilizing.
Social Movements: Characteristics, Dynamics, and Strategies
Characteristics of social movements
- Collective efforts by groups of people to bring about or resist social, political, economic, or cultural change
- Shared grievances or goals unite individuals under a common cause (income inequality, racial justice)
- Collective identity and sense of solidarity forged through shared experiences, values, and symbols (slogans, logos)
- Sustained and organized activities carried out over an extended period (rallies, marches, boycotts)
- Challenging existing power structures or norms, seeking to redistribute resources or transform institutions (government policies, corporate practices)
Factors in movement lifecycles
- Emergence: Identifying and framing issues, mobilizing resources, and building networks
- Activists define problems and propose solutions, crafting resonant messages (environmental justice, marriage equality)
- Securing funding, recruiting members, and establishing organizational structures (non-profits, coalitions)
- Forming alliances with other groups and tapping into existing social networks (churches, unions)
- Growth: Attracting new participants, expanding tactics, and gaining public support
- Increasing visibility and legitimacy through media coverage, endorsements, and concessions (legislative hearings, policy changes)
- Diversifying strategies and targets, escalating pressure on power-holders (occupations, litigation)
- Building momentum and capacity, creating a sense of inevitability or urgency (tipping points, crises)
- Decline: Achieving goals, facing repression, or losing momentum and cohesion
- Winning concrete victories, changing laws, or shifting cultural norms (Civil Rights Act, same-sex marriage)
- Encountering backlash, surveillance, or violence from authorities or counter-movements (COINTELPRO, anti-abortion activism)
- Internal conflicts, burnout, or co-optation weakening solidarity and sustainability (professionalization, partisan politics)
Effectiveness of movement strategies
- Disruptive tactics directly confront and challenge power structures
- Protests, marches, and demonstrations visibly display opposition and demands (March on Washington, Women's March)
- Civil disobedience and direct action disrupt business as usual and raise costs for authorities (sit-ins, blockades)
- Strikes and boycotts withdraw economic cooperation and resources (Montgomery Bus Boycott, United Farm Workers)
- Persuasive tactics aim to change hearts and minds and build public support
- Lobbying and petitioning appeal to decision-makers and institutions through formal channels (ballot initiatives, amicus briefs)
- Educational campaigns and public outreach raise awareness and shape opinions (teach-ins, documentaries)
- Media and public relations manage movement's image and narrative (press conferences, op-eds)
- Factors influencing effectiveness depend on context and interaction with other actors
- Alignment with political and cultural environment, taking advantage of opportunities and allies (elite divisions, international pressure)
- Ability to mobilize resources and maintain unity in the face of obstacles and setbacks (SNCC, ACT UP)
- Resilience and creativity in adapting tactics and frames to changing circumstances (Black Lives Matter, Dreamers)
- Advantages of digital technologies for organizing and mobilizing
- Rapid and wide dissemination of information, bypassing traditional gatekeepers (citizen journalism, live-streaming)
- Low-cost coordination and mobilization, enabling decentralized and spontaneous action (flash mobs, signal-boosting)
- Amplification of marginalized voices and perspectives, creating alternative public spheres (#BlackLivesMatter, #MeToo)
- Challenges and limitations of social media activism
- Digital divide and unequal access, reinforcing existing inequalities (Global South, low-income communities)
- Surveillance and repression by authorities, using data for targeting and intimidation (NSA, content moderation)
- Fragmentation and polarization of discourse, creating echo chambers and filter bubbles (fake news, conspiracy theories)
- Examples of social media in collective action
- Arab Spring uprisings, using Facebook and Twitter to coordinate protests and document abuses (Egypt, Tunisia)
- #MeToo movement, using hashtags to share stories of sexual violence and demand accountability (Hollywood, politics)
- Climate activism and Fridays for Future, using Instagram and TikTok to mobilize youth strikes and pressure leaders (Greta Thunberg, Sunrise Movement)
Collective Action: Theories and Applications
Characteristics of social movements
- Theories of collective action explain how and why people come together to pursue shared goals
- Resource mobilization emphasizes the importance of organizational resources and rational decision-making in overcoming obstacles (money, skills, leadership)
- Political process focuses on the interaction between movements and the political system, taking advantage of opportunities and allies (elections, court rulings)
- New social movements highlight the role of identity, culture, and post-material values in shaping grievances and solidarity (feminism, LGBTQ+ rights)
- Dynamics of collective action involve challenges and solutions to cooperation and coordination
- Free-rider problem arises when individuals benefit from collective goods without contributing to their production (clean air, social justice)
- Overcoming free-riding requires creating selective incentives, enforcing social norms, and fostering group solidarity (dues, shaming, rituals)
Factors in movement lifecycles
- Micro-level factors shape individual motivations and decisions to participate
- Personal experiences of grievances, efficacy, and moral shocks trigger activism (discrimination, empowerment, outrage)
- Social networks and interpersonal ties facilitate recruitment and sustain commitment (friends, family, colleagues)
- Meso-level factors shape organizational capacity and strategic choices
- Social movement organizations provide formal structures for mobilizing resources and coordinating action (staff, offices, budgets)
- Tactical repertoires offer sets of strategies and actions available to movements based on historical and cultural context (petitions, boycotts, occupations)
Effectiveness of movement strategies
- Success and failure can be evaluated based on multiple criteria and timescales
- Achieving stated goals and objectives, whether instrumental or expressive (policy change, cultural recognition)
- Influencing public opinion and discourse, shifting the terms of debate and the range of possibilities (marriage equality, Black Lives Matter)
- Effecting policy and institutional change, altering the distribution of power and resources (voting rights, environmental regulations)
- Unintended consequences can arise from movement actions and interactions
- Backlash and counter-movements mobilize in reaction to movement gains and demands (white supremacists, men's rights activists)
- Cooptation and demobilization occur when elites adopt movement language or symbols without substantive change (greenwashing, diversity initiatives)
- Spillover and diffusion to other movements and contexts can spread ideas and tactics (anti-apartheid to BDS, Occupy to Bernie Sanders)
- Networked movements leverage digital technologies for organizing and mobilizing
- Decentralized and horizontal organization allows for flexibility and innovation (affinity groups, working groups)
- Fluid and adaptive tactics and identities respond to changing circumstances and opportunities (memes, hashtags)
- Challenges of sustainability and impact arise from the ephemeral and fragmented nature of online activism (slacktivism, clicktivism)
- Digital repertoires expand the toolkit of collective action for social movements
- Online petitions and crowdfunding enable low-cost and low-risk participation (Change.org, GoFundMe)
- Hashtag activism and viral campaigns rapidly spread messages and mobilize supporters (#FridaysForFuture, #NeverAgain)
- Hacktivism and digital direct action disrupt and subvert dominant systems and narratives (Anonymous, WikiLeaks)