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Intro to Linguistics
Table of Contents
Unit 7 Overview: Language Use in Context: Pragmatics
7.1 Speech acts and conversational implicature
7.2 Deixis and reference
7.3 Politeness and face theory

Deixis is all about pointing with words. It's how we use language to indicate people, places, times, and social relationships relative to the speaker. Understanding deixis helps us navigate the context-dependent nature of communication.

Deixis comes in various flavors: person, spatial, temporal, and social. Each type helps us anchor our words to specific reference points in the world around us. By mastering deixis, we can communicate more effectively and understand language in its full context.

Types and Functions of Deixis

Types of deixis

  • Person deixis categorizes referents based on their role in the speech event
    • First person refers to the speaker or a group including the speaker (I, we, me, us)
    • Second person addresses the listener or audience (you)
    • Third person indicates those not directly involved in the speech event (he, she, it, they)
  • Spatial deixis locates referents in physical space relative to the speaker
    • Demonstratives point to specific objects or locations (this, that, these, those)
    • Adverbs indicate relative proximity or distance (here, there)
  • Temporal deixis anchors events in time relative to the moment of speaking
    • Time adverbs specify temporal relationships (now, then, today, yesterday, tomorrow)
    • Tense markers in verbs indicate when actions occur relative to speech time
  • Social deixis encodes social relationships and statuses in language
    • Honorifics show respect or deference (Your Highness, Dr., Sir)
    • Forms of address reflect social distance or intimacy (Mr. Smith, honey)

Context in deictic interpretation

  • Situational context crucial for understanding deictic expressions
    • Physical environment provides spatial reference points (the book on the table)
    • Social setting influences appropriate forms of address (formal vs informal)
  • Shared knowledge between interlocutors aids interpretation
    • Common ground allows for more efficient communication (Remember that restaurant we went to last week?)
  • Shifting deictic center affects perspective in discourse
    • Speaker typically serves as the default center for deixis
    • Narrative perspective shifts can change the deictic center (In the story, "here" referred to the castle)
  • Context resolves ambiguity in deictic expressions
    • Helps identify correct referents for pronouns (She took her book = whose book?)
    • Clarifies relative spatial terms (The cat is behind the couch = from whose viewpoint?)

Deixis in referential meaning

  • Establishes reference points in communication
    • Creates shared focus between speaker and listener (Look at this!)
  • Builds coherence in discourse by linking utterances
    • Connects statements to specific times, places, or participants (We'll meet there at noon)
  • Manages information flow in conversations
    • Distinguishes between given and new information (That's the one I was talking about)
  • Discourse deixis refers to parts of the conversation itself
    • Allows speakers to navigate within the discourse (As I mentioned earlier...)
  • Gestural deixis combines speech with physical indicators
    • Pointing or nodding while using deictic expressions (It's over there points)

Anaphora and cataphora for reference

  • Anaphora refers back to previously mentioned entities
    • Pronominal: uses pronouns (John arrived late. He was stuck in traffic)
    • Lexical: repeats or rephrases nouns (The dog was barking. The animal wouldn't stop)
    • Zero anaphora: omits repeated elements (John came in and [John] sat down)
  • Cataphora points forward to entities mentioned later
    • Creates anticipation or emphasis (Before he arrived, John called to say he'd be late)
  • Anaphora and cataphora differ in reference direction and frequency
    • Anaphora looks backward, cataphora looks forward in discourse
    • Anaphora more common in most languages
  • Reference resolution identifies correct antecedents or postcedents
    • Requires consideration of context and semantics (The boys argued until they were tired)
  • Both maintain coherence and avoid repetition in discourse
    • Anaphora: The cat sat on the mat. It was comfortable there
    • Cataphora: Although she didn't know it yet, Sarah was about to have a great day

Key Terms to Review (32)

Temporal adverbs: Temporal adverbs are words that provide information about when an action occurs, helping to place events in time. They can indicate specific times, such as 'now' or 'yesterday', or relative times, like 'soon' or 'later'. These adverbs play a crucial role in deixis, as they help reference points in time that depend on the context of the conversation.
G. w. h. hunter: G. W. H. Hunter is a notable figure in the study of deixis and reference, primarily known for his contributions to understanding how language relates to context and meaning in communication. His work emphasizes how elements of deixis, such as person, time, and place, function within discourse to create meaning based on the relationship between the speaker and listener. Hunter's insights help to clarify the ways language users navigate reference in their interactions, shedding light on the complexities of meaning that arise from context-dependent expressions.
Indefinite reference: Indefinite reference occurs when a speaker refers to an entity without specifying its identity, using expressions like 'a', 'some', or 'any'. This type of reference allows for generalization and vagueness, letting listeners understand that the specific details of the referent are not crucial for the conversation at hand.
Definite description: A definite description is a phrase that uniquely identifies a specific entity or individual, typically using the definite article 'the'. This term is crucial in understanding reference and how language points to particular objects or people in communication. Definite descriptions allow speakers to convey information clearly by indicating that they are referring to something known and identifiable within the context of a conversation.
Reference Resolution: Reference resolution is the process of determining what a linguistic expression, such as a pronoun or noun phrase, refers to in a given context. This involves understanding how words connect to objects, people, or ideas in the real world or within a conversation. The ability to resolve references correctly is crucial for effective communication, as it ensures that listeners or readers comprehend the intended meaning behind ambiguous terms.
Contextualism: Contextualism is an approach in linguistics that emphasizes the importance of context in understanding meaning, particularly how language is used in specific situations. This perspective highlights that the interpretation of words and phrases can vary significantly based on the surrounding circumstances, speaker intentions, and listener perceptions. By focusing on contextual factors, this approach aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of communication.
Charles Fillmore: Charles Fillmore is a prominent linguist known for his work in semantics, particularly his development of Frame Semantics, which examines how language relates to our understanding of the world. His theories help clarify how deixis and reference operate within language, emphasizing that meaning is not just found in words but also in the context of their use, influencing how we interpret utterances based on situational factors.
Zero anaphora: Zero anaphora is a linguistic phenomenon where a subject or object is omitted in a sentence but is still understood from the context. This often occurs in languages that allow for such ellipsis, making the meaning clear without explicitly stating the omitted element. It is closely related to deixis and reference, as it relies on shared knowledge and contextual clues for interpretation.
Lexical anaphora: Lexical anaphora refers to a type of reference in which a word or phrase is used to refer back to a previously mentioned entity, often relying on its lexical meaning rather than grammatical markers. This concept connects to the broader ideas of deixis and reference, as it highlights how language users can establish connections between words and their meanings in a coherent context, enriching communication.
Indexicality: Indexicality refers to the phenomenon where a word or expression points to or indicates something in a specific context, often related to the speaker, listener, time, or place of an utterance. This concept is crucial for understanding how language conveys meaning beyond the literal definitions of words, as indexicals can change their reference depending on who is speaking, where they are, and when they are speaking.
Antecedent: An antecedent is a linguistic term that refers to the noun or noun phrase that a pronoun replaces or refers to in a sentence. Understanding antecedents is crucial for grasping how deixis and reference function, as they establish clear connections between elements in discourse, enabling coherent communication.
Pronominal Anaphora: Pronominal anaphora refers to the linguistic phenomenon where a pronoun is used to refer back to a noun or noun phrase mentioned earlier in a discourse. This creates coherence and helps avoid repetition, as pronouns like 'he,' 'she,' or 'it' can succinctly refer to previously mentioned entities without restating their full names.
Anaphora: Anaphora is a linguistic term that refers to the use of a word or phrase to refer back to another word or phrase that was previously mentioned in discourse. This technique helps create coherence and continuity in language, allowing speakers and listeners to understand references without needing to repeat entire phrases. Anaphora is essential for maintaining clarity and fluidity in communication, as it links sentences and ideas together smoothly.
Cataphora: Cataphora is a linguistic term that refers to the use of a word or phrase to refer to something that is mentioned later in the text or conversation. It creates anticipation by pointing forward to what is to come, establishing a reference that will be clarified in subsequent discourse. This device is important in constructing coherence and managing information flow in communication.
Contextual ambiguity: Contextual ambiguity occurs when a word, phrase, or sentence can have multiple meanings depending on the context in which it is used. This ambiguity often arises from the reliance on deixis and reference, as the meaning of certain expressions can change dramatically based on the speaker's intention, the listener's interpretation, and the situational context surrounding the communication.
Gestural deixis: Gestural deixis refers to the use of physical gestures or signs to indicate or reference entities, locations, or actions in communication. This type of deixis relies on the speaker's body movements and position to convey meaning, complementing verbal language and providing context to the conversation.
Third person: Third person is a grammatical term used to refer to entities that are neither the speaker nor the listener, typically represented by pronouns such as 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' and 'they.' This perspective allows for a narrative style that can convey thoughts and actions of multiple characters, enhancing the richness of storytelling and discourse.
Deictic expressions: Deictic expressions are words or phrases that require contextual information to convey meaning, often relating to the location, time, or participants in a conversation. They play a crucial role in establishing reference and meaning based on the speaker's and listener's perspective, making them essential for effective communication in various contexts.
Discourse deixis: Discourse deixis refers to the use of expressions that anchor the interpretation of the utterance to the context of the discourse itself, typically involving references to parts of the discourse or the speaker's role in it. It allows speakers to indicate what they are talking about in relation to the ongoing conversation, such as 'this', 'that', 'next', or 'previous', and helps listeners understand which part of the discourse is being referenced or highlighted.
Time adverbs: Time adverbs are words that provide information about when an action takes place, helping to situate events in time. They can indicate specific times, such as 'yesterday' or 'now,' or they can describe frequency and duration, like 'often' or 'always.' These adverbs play a crucial role in deixis and reference by clarifying the temporal context of statements.
Shifting deictic center: Shifting deictic center refers to the phenomenon in language where the reference point for deixis changes based on the context of the utterance, often influenced by the speaker's perspective or location. This concept illustrates how meaning is not static but can adapt according to who is speaking, where they are, and what they are referring to at that moment, showcasing the dynamic nature of language and reference.
Shared knowledge: Shared knowledge refers to the information, beliefs, and understanding that individuals have in common within a particular context or social group. This collective understanding helps facilitate communication and comprehension, allowing speakers to reference things more effectively through deixis and reference without needing extensive explanations.
Honorifics: Honorifics are linguistic forms used to convey respect, politeness, or social status in communication. They can take the form of titles, terms of address, or specific verb forms that show deference to the listener or referent. The use of honorifics often reflects cultural norms and social hierarchies, influencing how people relate to each other based on their positions within society.
Demonstrative pronouns: Demonstrative pronouns are words that are used to point to specific things or people in relation to the speaker's context. They include 'this,' 'that,' 'these,' and 'those,' which indicate proximity or distance in terms of both space and time, helping listeners understand exactly what or who is being referred to.
Forms of Address: Forms of address refer to the linguistic strategies and expressions used to refer to individuals, indicating their social relationships, status, and levels of familiarity. They play a crucial role in communication by signaling respect, hierarchy, and intimacy between speakers and listeners. Understanding forms of address is vital for grasping how language functions in social contexts and how it can vary across different cultures and settings.
Person deixis: Person deixis refers to the linguistic feature that indicates the grammatical person involved in a conversation or text, primarily focusing on the roles of speaker, listener, and others. It connects language to the context of communication by identifying who is speaking (first person), who is being addressed (second person), and who is being referred to (third person). This aspect of deixis is crucial for understanding how language functions in different social contexts and relationships.
First person: First person is a grammatical category that refers to the speaker or speakers themselves in a sentence, typically using pronouns like 'I' or 'we'. This perspective is essential in conveying personal experiences, thoughts, and emotions, allowing the speaker to express their identity and connection to the narrative. First person usage plays a significant role in deixis and reference, as it establishes a direct link between the speaker and the information being communicated.
Social deixis: Social deixis refers to the linguistic elements that indicate the social relationship between the speaker and the listener, often through terms of address and reference that signal status, familiarity, and social roles. This concept is essential in understanding how language reflects and enacts social hierarchies and relationships, influencing communication based on context and interaction.
Spatial deixis: Spatial deixis refers to the use of words and phrases that indicate locations or directions in relation to the speaker's position in space. This type of deixis helps listeners understand where objects or people are situated by using expressions like 'here,' 'there,' 'above,' and 'below.' Spatial deixis is essential for establishing context and clarifying meaning in communication.
Temporal deixis: Temporal deixis refers to the linguistic expressions that indicate the time of an event relative to the time of utterance or to another reference point. This aspect of deixis is essential for understanding how we locate events in time using terms such as 'now,' 'then,' 'soon,' and 'yesterday.' Temporal deixis helps establish the context and sequence of events in communication, allowing speakers and listeners to share a mutual understanding of when actions occur.
Second person: The second person is a grammatical term that refers to the point of view that directly addresses the listener or reader, typically using pronouns such as 'you.' This perspective is essential for deixis and reference, as it involves establishing relationships between the speaker, the addressee, and the context of the communication.
Situational context: Situational context refers to the circumstances or environment in which communication occurs, influencing how language is understood and interpreted. This context includes factors such as the physical setting, the participants involved, their relationships, and any shared knowledge that can affect meaning. Understanding situational context is crucial in grasping the nuances of word meanings and how reference is made in conversation.