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Intro to Comparative Politics
Table of Contents
Unit 8 Overview: Electoral Systems and Voting Behavior
8.1 Types of Electoral Systems and Their Impacts
8.2 Voter Turnout and Political Participation
8.3 Determinants of Voting Behavior
8.4 Electoral Integrity and Manipulation

Voter turnout and political participation are key indicators of democratic health. These factors shape election outcomes and policy decisions, influencing how well governments represent their citizens. Understanding what drives people to vote or stay home is crucial for assessing the strength of democracies worldwide.

Various elements impact turnout, from institutional rules to individual characteristics. Compulsory voting, electoral systems, and registration processes can boost or hinder participation. Meanwhile, factors like education, age, and socioeconomic status affect who shows up at the polls and engages politically.

Voter Turnout Factors

Institutional Variables

  • Compulsory voting laws make voting mandatory and impose penalties for non-compliance, resulting in higher turnout rates compared to voluntary voting systems (Australia, Belgium)
  • The type of electoral system can affect voter turnout, with proportional representation systems generally having higher turnout than majoritarian systems like first-past-the-post (Germany, New Zealand)
  • The frequency and timing of elections impact turnout rates, as voter fatigue may decrease participation in countries with frequent elections, while holding elections on weekends or holidays can increase accessibility (United States, Japan)
  • The voting age and ease of voter registration processes, such as automatic or same-day registration, affect turnout, particularly among younger voters (Canada, Sweden)

Political and Contextual Factors

  • The competitiveness of elections and perceived closeness of races motivate higher turnout, as voters feel their vote is more likely to make a difference in tight contests (United States presidential elections)
  • The strength and mobilizing capacity of political parties, unions, and civil society organizations greatly influence levels of political participation among their members and constituents (Nordic countries, Belgium)
  • The political and electoral context, including the salience of issues, the polarization of the electorate, and the presence of charismatic leaders or popular movements, can stimulate or depress turnout (United States 2020 election, United Kingdom Brexit referendum)

Determinants of Political Participation

Socio-Economic Factors

  • Education is a strong predictor of political participation, with higher levels associated with increased voter turnout, political knowledge, and civic engagement
  • Income and wealth are positively correlated with political participation, as economically advantaged individuals are more likely to vote and engage in other forms of political activity
  • Occupation and employment status can influence political participation, with certain professions (educators, public sector workers) and those with stable employment exhibiting higher engagement levels
  • Housing and neighborhood conditions, such as homeownership, residential stability, and community ties, are associated with higher rates of voter turnout and local political involvement

Demographic Characteristics

  • Age is a significant determinant of turnout, with older citizens generally more likely to vote than younger ones due to life cycle effects and generational differences (Baby Boomers vs. Millennials)
  • Racial, ethnic, and linguistic minorities often have lower rates of political participation compared to dominant groups, due to factors such as discrimination, language barriers, and socio-economic disadvantages (African Americans, Hispanics in the United States)
  • Gender gaps in political participation have narrowed over time, but women still face barriers in some contexts, such as cultural norms, family responsibilities, and political underrepresentation (Middle East, North Africa)
  • Marital status and family structure can affect political engagement, with married individuals and those with children often exhibiting higher turnout rates than single or childless citizens

Strategies for Enhancing Turnout

Mobilization Efforts

  • Get-out-the-vote (GOTV) campaigns use various methods, such as door-to-door canvassing, phone banking, and direct mail, to encourage and remind citizens to vote, modestly increasing turnout (United States political campaigns)
  • Political parties, interest groups, and social movements employ mobilization strategies, including rallies, protests, and targeted messaging, to energize their supporters and boost turnout among key constituencies (Black Lives Matter, Tea Party movement)
  • Peer-to-peer outreach and social pressure, such as friends or family members encouraging each other to vote or sharing voting experiences on social media, can have a significant impact on turnout (Facebook "I Voted" button)

Institutional Reforms

  • Lowering the voting age to 16 or 17 is proposed to engage youth earlier and establish voting habits, but evidence on its impact is mixed (Austria, Brazil)
  • Automatic voter registration (AVR) reduces barriers to registration and boosts turnout by registering eligible citizens by default when they interact with government agencies (Oregon, California)
  • Election day holidays or holding elections on weekends are strategies to make voting more convenient for workers and increase turnout, but their effects may be limited in practice (France, South Korea)
  • Online and mobile voting have been proposed to make voting more accessible, particularly for younger generations, but concerns about security and digital divides have limited their adoption (Estonia, Switzerland)

Turnout and Democratic Legitimacy

Representation and Accountability

  • High voter turnout is often seen as a sign of democratic health and legitimacy, indicating that citizens are engaged and invested in the political process, while low turnout may signal disillusionment or apathy
  • Unequal participation across socio-economic and demographic groups can bias the responsiveness of democratic systems towards the interests of more active and privileged voters (wealthy, highly educated citizens)
  • The representativeness of the electorate, or how closely it mirrors the demographic and ideological composition of the population, affects the perceived legitimacy of election outcomes and policy decisions

Trust and Satisfaction

  • Low turnout may undermine the mandate and accountability of elected officials, as they are chosen by a smaller and potentially unrepresentative subset of the population
  • Declining or consistently low turnout rates over time may indicate a growing disconnect between citizens and political institutions, eroding trust and satisfaction with the democratic process (United States, Canada)
  • Efforts to increase turnout and political participation are often framed as ways to enhance the inclusiveness, legitimacy, and responsiveness of democratic systems, strengthening the social contract between citizens and their representatives

Key Terms to Review (47)

Automatic voter registration: Automatic voter registration is a system that automatically registers eligible citizens to vote when they interact with government agencies, such as when applying for a driver's license or state identification. This approach aims to increase voter turnout and political participation by simplifying the registration process and reducing barriers for potential voters.
Trust and Satisfaction: Trust and satisfaction refer to the degree of confidence and contentment individuals have in their political system and representatives. These feelings influence how likely citizens are to engage in political activities, including voting, as they perceive the efficacy and responsiveness of their government. High levels of trust and satisfaction can lead to increased political participation, while low levels may result in apathy or disengagement from the political process.
Unequal participation: Unequal participation refers to the disparities in political engagement and voting behavior among different demographic groups within a society. This concept highlights how factors like socioeconomic status, race, education, and geographic location can affect individuals' likelihood to engage in the political process, leading to an imbalanced representation in decision-making.
Democratic health: Democratic health refers to the overall condition and effectiveness of a democratic system, encompassing aspects such as citizen participation, government accountability, political equality, and the rule of law. It reflects how well a democracy functions in promoting active engagement and ensuring that all voices are heard, which is crucial for maintaining a vibrant political environment. High democratic health indicates that citizens are actively participating in elections and other forms of political engagement, while also holding their leaders accountable.
Mobile voting: Mobile voting refers to the use of mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, to cast votes in elections. This method of voting leverages technology to enhance accessibility and convenience, allowing voters to participate from virtually anywhere, which can potentially increase voter turnout and political engagement.
Accountability: Accountability refers to the obligation of individuals, organizations, or governments to explain their actions and accept responsibility for them. This concept is crucial for fostering trust and transparency in political systems, as it ensures that elected officials and public servants are answerable to the public for their decisions and actions, influencing both voter turnout and the integrity of electoral processes.
Election day holidays: Election day holidays refer to designated days when citizens have time off from work and school to participate in elections, ensuring they can cast their votes without the constraints of their daily obligations. These holidays aim to increase voter turnout by making it easier for individuals to engage in the electoral process, thus enhancing political participation across various demographics.
Democratic legitimacy: Democratic legitimacy refers to the acceptance and recognition of a government or political system as valid and just by its citizens. It is built on principles such as popular sovereignty, accountability, and the rule of law, which ensure that the government derives its authority from the consent of the governed. A system with high democratic legitimacy is typically characterized by active political participation and adherence to democratic norms.
Ethnic minorities: Ethnic minorities refer to groups of people who share distinct cultural, linguistic, or ancestral characteristics that differ from the dominant population within a society. These groups often face unique challenges related to political representation, social integration, and economic opportunities, which can significantly influence their levels of political participation and voter turnout.
Gender gaps: Gender gaps refer to the disparities in outcomes or opportunities between men and women, particularly in areas such as political participation, economic status, and education. These gaps often manifest in differences in voting behavior, representation in political offices, and access to resources, highlighting the influence of gender on civic engagement and power structures.
Peer-to-peer outreach: Peer-to-peer outreach refers to the strategy of mobilizing individuals to engage their friends, family, and social networks in political activities or causes. This method is particularly effective in increasing voter turnout and political participation, as personal connections can motivate individuals to take action and feel more accountable in their civic duties.
Demographic characteristics: Demographic characteristics refer to the statistical data that describes a population's traits, such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, income level, education, and employment status. These features play a crucial role in understanding voting behaviors and political participation, as they can significantly influence how different groups engage in the electoral process and their overall representation in governance.
Family structure: Family structure refers to the composition and arrangement of a family unit, including the relationships between its members, such as parents, children, and extended family. This structure can significantly influence socialization, values, and behaviors, which in turn can affect political participation and voter turnout.
Linguistic minorities: Linguistic minorities are groups of people within a larger population who speak a language different from the dominant or official language of the country or region they reside in. These groups can face unique challenges in terms of political participation and representation, especially during elections when language barriers can limit their access to information and resources necessary for informed voting.
Get-out-the-vote efforts: Get-out-the-vote efforts refer to organized campaigns and initiatives aimed at encouraging individuals to participate in elections by casting their votes. These efforts play a critical role in increasing voter turnout and political participation, particularly among underrepresented communities. By mobilizing supporters, providing information on how to vote, and addressing barriers to voting, these initiatives can significantly impact electoral outcomes and the overall democratic process.
Marital status: Marital status refers to the legal classification of an individual's relationship status regarding marriage, indicating whether a person is single, married, divorced, separated, or widowed. This classification can significantly influence social behavior and political participation, as different marital statuses often correlate with varying levels of voter turnout and civic engagement.
Age cohort: An age cohort refers to a group of individuals who are born around the same time and share similar experiences and historical events that shape their attitudes and behaviors. These shared experiences can influence their political participation, voting behavior, and civic engagement as they age, creating patterns in how different generations engage with the political process.
Neighborhood conditions: Neighborhood conditions refer to the physical, social, and economic characteristics of a community that can influence residents' well-being and behaviors, including their likelihood to participate in political activities. These conditions encompass factors like the availability of resources, community engagement levels, safety, and local infrastructure, which all play a significant role in shaping how individuals perceive their ability to effect change through participation in civic processes.
Social Pressure: Social pressure refers to the influence exerted by a group or individual that encourages others to conform to certain behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs. This phenomenon can significantly impact political participation and voter turnout, as individuals often feel compelled to align their actions with the expectations of their peers or social groups, particularly during elections.
Online voting: Online voting refers to the process of casting votes electronically through the internet, allowing voters to participate in elections remotely and conveniently. This method has gained traction as a way to increase voter turnout and enhance political participation by making it easier for individuals to cast their ballots from anywhere with internet access. It can also address challenges like long lines at polling places and accessibility for those with mobility issues.
Racial minorities: Racial minorities refer to groups of people who differ from the majority population in terms of race and ethnicity. These groups often face systemic barriers in political participation, which can significantly affect their voter turnout and representation in government.
Employment status: Employment status refers to an individual's current work situation, indicating whether they are employed, unemployed, or not in the labor force. This status can influence various social and political factors, such as voter turnout and civic engagement, as those with stable employment may be more likely to participate in political processes due to a sense of stability and investment in their community.
Occupation: Occupation refers to the job or profession that an individual engages in for earning a living. It plays a crucial role in shaping one’s identity, social status, and influences political participation, especially voter turnout, as people often align their political views with their occupational experiences and economic needs.
Income: Income refers to the financial earnings received by individuals or households, typically in the form of wages, salaries, investments, or government transfers. It plays a significant role in shaping economic status and influences various aspects of social and political participation, as those with higher income often have more resources and opportunities to engage in civic activities, including voting and community involvement.
Housing conditions: Housing conditions refer to the quality, safety, and overall environment of living spaces, including factors such as sanitation, overcrowding, structural integrity, and access to basic utilities. These conditions can significantly influence residents' health, well-being, and their level of political participation, particularly in terms of voter turnout.
Wealth: Wealth refers to the accumulation of valuable resources, assets, and economic capital that can influence an individual's or group's social status and power within a society. In the context of political participation and voter turnout, wealth can significantly impact the ability to engage in the political process, as those with more resources often have greater access to political information, can afford campaign contributions, and may be more likely to participate in elections.
Brexit Referendum: The Brexit referendum, held on June 23, 2016, was a public vote in the United Kingdom that asked citizens whether the country should remain a member of the European Union or leave it. The outcome of the referendum saw 51.9% of voters choosing to leave the EU, which sparked significant political and economic changes in the UK and raised discussions about voter turnout and political participation in democratic processes.
Education: Education refers to the formal and informal processes of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes through various methods such as teaching, training, and self-directed learning. It plays a critical role in shaping individual perspectives and behaviors, which can significantly impact civic engagement, political awareness, and economic development.
Charismatic leaders: Charismatic leaders are individuals who possess exceptional personal qualities that inspire and attract followers, often leading to significant influence and political power. Their ability to connect emotionally with the public can enhance voter turnout and political participation, as they often embody the hopes and aspirations of their supporters, motivating them to engage in the political process.
Socioeconomic status: Socioeconomic status (SES) is a combined measure of an individual's or family's economic and social position in relation to others, often assessed by income, education level, and occupation. This term plays a crucial role in understanding how individuals engage with political systems, influencing factors such as voter turnout and political participation, as well as shaping determinants of voting behavior based on their perceived social hierarchy and resources.
2020 election: The 2020 election was a pivotal event in U.S. history, where citizens voted for the President and Vice President, as well as other federal, state, and local offices. This election is particularly notable for its record voter turnout and the heightened political participation fueled by issues such as the COVID-19 pandemic, racial justice movements, and economic concerns. The election highlighted the importance of voter engagement and the impact of mobilization efforts across diverse communities.
Salience of issues: The salience of issues refers to the degree of importance or prominence that certain political issues hold in the minds of voters and policymakers. This concept is crucial as it influences voter behavior and political participation, often determining which issues are prioritized in elections and public discourse. When an issue is deemed salient, it is more likely to mobilize voters and shape their preferences during electoral processes.
Civil society organizations: Civil society organizations (CSOs) are non-governmental organizations that operate independently from the government and the market, often focused on social, cultural, and political issues. They play a critical role in fostering civic engagement, advocating for rights, and holding governments accountable. CSOs can influence voter turnout and political participation by mobilizing communities, raising awareness about important issues, and encouraging citizens to engage in democratic processes.
Mobilization capacity: Mobilization capacity refers to the ability of a political entity, such as a party or a movement, to rally and engage individuals in political activities, especially during elections. This capacity is influenced by various factors like organization, resources, and strategies that facilitate voter turnout and broader political participation. A higher mobilization capacity often leads to increased engagement from constituents and can significantly impact electoral outcomes.
Polarization of the electorate: Polarization of the electorate refers to the growing ideological divide among voters, resulting in an increase in extreme preferences and a decrease in moderate views within the political landscape. This phenomenon can lead to greater party alignment, where voters identify more strongly with their political party, often resulting in increased voter turnout and engagement, but also in heightened political conflict and partisanship.
Accessibility: Accessibility refers to the ease with which individuals can participate in the political process, including voting, running for office, and engaging in civic activities. It encompasses various factors such as physical access to polling places, understanding the voting process, and the availability of resources that facilitate participation. High levels of accessibility help to ensure that a diverse range of voices are heard in politics, promoting a more inclusive democratic system.
Voting Age: The voting age is the minimum legal age at which a citizen is allowed to participate in elections and cast their vote. This age is crucial for determining the eligibility of individuals to engage in the democratic process and influences voter turnout, as younger voters may have different participation rates compared to older age groups. The voting age often reflects broader societal values about youth engagement and civic responsibility.
Voter registration: Voter registration is the process by which eligible citizens sign up to be able to vote in elections. This process is crucial for ensuring that only qualified individuals participate in the electoral system, and it serves as a means to maintain the integrity of voter rolls, thus influencing voter turnout and political participation in a given area.
Political Parties: Political parties are organized groups of individuals who share common political beliefs and aim to influence government policy by getting their candidates elected to public office. They play a crucial role in shaping political landscapes, facilitating political participation, and structuring voter choices within democratic systems.
Compulsory voting: Compulsory voting is a legal requirement for eligible citizens to participate in elections, meaning they must either vote or face penalties for noncompliance. This practice aims to increase voter turnout and ensure that election results reflect the preferences of a larger segment of the population, thereby enhancing democratic legitimacy. Countries that implement compulsory voting often believe it fosters civic duty and political engagement among citizens.
Voter fatigue: Voter fatigue refers to the decline in voter turnout that occurs when individuals become overwhelmed or disillusioned with the electoral process, often due to frequent elections or a perceived lack of meaningful choices. This phenomenon can lead to lower participation rates, as people feel exhausted by the constant demand to engage with political campaigns and cast votes. Voter fatigue can impact the overall health of a democracy by reducing public engagement and diminishing the representativeness of elected officials.
Political Participation: Political participation refers to the ways in which individuals engage in political processes and influence decision-making within their communities or countries. This engagement can manifest through various activities such as voting, campaigning, advocacy, and community organizing. Understanding the factors that affect political participation helps to analyze trends in voter turnout, the impact of political culture, and the role of socialization agents in shaping individuals' political behavior.
Voter turnout: Voter turnout refers to the percentage of eligible voters who participate in an election. It is a crucial indicator of democratic engagement and reflects the health of a political system, influencing and being influenced by various factors like electoral systems, political culture, and party competition.
Representation: Representation refers to the way in which individuals or groups are portrayed or symbolized in political processes, particularly within legislatures. It is crucial for ensuring that diverse interests and voices are included in decision-making, influencing policies and laws. Representation can manifest through various mechanisms, such as electoral systems, the structure of legislative bodies, and voter engagement, shaping the relationship between citizens and their government.
First-past-the-post: First-past-the-post (FPTP) is an electoral system where the candidate who receives the most votes in a constituency wins, regardless of whether they achieve an absolute majority. This system tends to simplify the voting process and can lead to a strong connection between voters and their representatives, but it often results in unequal representation and the marginalization of smaller parties.
Proportional representation: Proportional representation is an electoral system in which parties gain seats in the legislature in proportion to the number of votes they receive. This system aims to reflect the diversity of voter preferences in the elected body, fostering a more inclusive political environment.
Electoral system: An electoral system is a set of rules that determines how votes are cast, counted, and translated into seats in a legislature. This system significantly shapes political competition and party systems, influencing how voters engage in the democratic process and the representation of diverse interests within government.