scoresvideos
Intro to Cognitive Science
Table of Contents
Unit 3 Overview: Cognitive Psych: Perception & Memory
3.1 Perceptual processes and pattern recognition
3.2 Attention mechanisms and selective processing
3.3 Memory systems: encoding, storage, and retrieval
3.4 Working memory and its role in cognition

Memory is a complex cognitive process involving encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. These stages work together to form our ability to remember experiences, facts, and skills. Understanding how memory works can help us improve our learning and retention strategies.

Different memory systems handle information in unique ways. Sensory memory briefly holds sensory input, while short-term memory actively processes limited information. Long-term memory stores vast amounts of information for extended periods, relying on effective encoding and retrieval strategies to access stored knowledge.

Memory Stages and Systems

Stages of memory process

  • Encoding converts sensory information into a storable form in memory by directing attention to stimuli (sights, sounds), perceiving their features, and interpreting their meaning
  • Storage maintains encoded information over time in sensory memory (< 1 sec), short-term memory (15-30 sec), or long-term memory (potentially permanent)
  • Retrieval accesses stored information from memory through recall (remembering without cues), recognition (identifying previously encountered info), and relearning (learning faster than the first time)

Types of memory systems

  • Sensory memory briefly stores sensory information for less than a second with a large capacity but short duration (iconic memory for visual, echoic memory for auditory)
  • Short-term memory, also known as working memory, holds a limited amount of information (7 ± 2 items) for a brief duration (15-30 seconds without rehearsal) and actively manipulates and processes it
  • Long-term memory has a virtually unlimited capacity and long duration (potentially permanent) but requires encoding and consolidation to store information

Encoding Strategies and Retrieval Processes

Encoding strategies for retention

  • Elaborative rehearsal associates new information with existing knowledge by creating meaningful connections and contexts, which is more effective than simple maintenance rehearsal for long-term retention
  • Mnemonic devices aid in encoding and retrieval using techniques like acronyms (ROY G. BIV for rainbow colors), acrostics (Every Good Boy Does Fine for musical notes), method of loci (mental journey), and pegword method (rhyming associations) to remember specific information or sequences
  • Semantic encoding focuses on the meaning and significance of information by organizing it into categories or hierarchies, promoting deeper processing and better retention than shallow encoding (surface features)
  • Visual imagery creates mental images or visualizations of information, combining verbal and visual codes for enhanced memory, which is particularly effective for concrete and easily visualized information (objects, faces)

Memory retrieval processes

  1. Recall retrieves information from memory without external cues, requiring more cognitive effort than recognition (free recall of a list, cued recall with hints)
  2. Recognition identifies previously encountered information when presented with it, which is less cognitively demanding than recall (multiple-choice tests, face recognition)
  3. Relearning involves learning previously acquired information more quickly than new information, demonstrating the existence of residual memory traces, and can be measured using a savings score (efficiency compared to original learning)

Factors in forgetting and distortion

  • Decay theory proposes that memory traces fade over time without rehearsal or use, primarily affecting short-term memory
  • Interference theory suggests that prior learning interferes with new learning (proactive interference) or new learning interferes with the retrieval of prior learning (retroactive interference)
  • Retrieval failure occurs when stored information cannot be accessed due to a lack of appropriate cues, meaning the information is available but not accessible
  • Memory distortions include false memories (remembering events that did not occur or differently from reality), source misattribution (confusing the source of a memory), and suggestibility (incorporating misleading post-event information)
  • Motivated forgetting involves the unconscious blocking of traumatic or emotionally painful memories (repression) or the conscious effort to avoid thinking about unpleasant memories (suppression)

Key Terms to Review (20)

Misinformation effect: The misinformation effect refers to the phenomenon where a person's memory of an event becomes less accurate due to the introduction of misleading information after the event has occurred. This effect highlights how the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval can be influenced by external factors, leading to altered or distorted memories. Understanding this effect sheds light on how easily memories can be shaped by suggestion, social interactions, and media exposure.
Recall tasks: Recall tasks are activities that require an individual to retrieve and reproduce information from memory without the aid of cues or prompts. These tasks are crucial for assessing the effectiveness of encoding and storage in memory systems, as they highlight how well information is stored and can be accessed later on.
Interference: Interference refers to the phenomenon where information in memory is disrupted or obstructed by other information, making retrieval more difficult. It plays a crucial role in understanding how memories are encoded, stored, and retrieved, as it highlights the complexities involved in memory organization and access. Interference can occur in various forms, such as proactive interference, where old information hinders the learning of new information, or retroactive interference, where new information disrupts the recall of old information.
Recognition tasks: Recognition tasks are assessments that require individuals to identify previously encountered information among a set of options. They are commonly used to evaluate memory retrieval processes, as they involve recognizing rather than recalling information, allowing for insights into how memories are stored and accessed in the brain.
Connectionist model: A connectionist model is a computational framework for understanding cognitive processes, particularly in relation to memory, that simulates the way neural networks in the brain operate. These models consist of interconnected units or nodes that work together to process information, encoding it in a way that mimics human memory systems, which involves the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Flashbulb memory: Flashbulb memory refers to the vivid and detailed recollection of an emotionally significant event. These memories are often retained with high clarity due to the emotional arousal that accompanies them, making them stand out from everyday memories. The process of encoding, storage, and retrieval is crucial in understanding how flashbulb memories form and why they may sometimes be subject to distortion over time.
Decay: Decay refers to the process by which memories fade or diminish over time when they are not actively recalled or reinforced. This phenomenon is crucial in understanding how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved within memory systems, as it highlights the limitations of memory retention and the role of time in forgetting.
Levels of processing theory: Levels of processing theory posits that the depth at which information is processed influences how well it is encoded, stored, and retrieved. This approach suggests that deeper processing—such as semantic processing (thinking about the meaning of the information)—leads to better memory retention compared to shallow processing, which may involve only structural or phonetic aspects of the information. The theory highlights the importance of encoding strategies in enhancing memory performance.
Retrieval: Retrieval is the process of accessing and bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored in memory. This essential function allows individuals to recall past experiences, facts, and skills, facilitating learning and decision-making. The effectiveness of retrieval can be influenced by various factors, including the strength of the original encoding and the context in which the retrieval occurs.
Encoding: Encoding is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. This crucial step in memory systems allows us to transform sensory input into a format that our brains can understand, leading to storage and later retrieval. The efficiency of encoding influences how well information can be remembered and recalled, making it a key player in the overall memory process.
Working Memory Model: The working memory model is a cognitive framework that describes the processes involved in temporarily storing and manipulating information. It emphasizes the active role of working memory in tasks such as reasoning, learning, and comprehension, and breaks down memory into distinct components that manage different types of information, connecting strongly with encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Sensory memory: Sensory memory is the initial, brief storage of sensory information that occurs immediately after a stimulus is presented. It allows individuals to retain impressions of sensory information for a very short period, usually less than a second for visual stimuli and a few seconds for auditory stimuli. This fleeting storage plays a critical role in the encoding process, as it helps filter and transfer information into short-term memory for further processing.
Multi-store model: The multi-store model is a framework that describes how memory is structured and functions, proposing that there are three distinct stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. This model illustrates the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval, highlighting how information moves through each stage before it can be stored for long-term use or recalled later.
Hermann Ebbinghaus: Hermann Ebbinghaus was a pioneering German psychologist known for his work on memory and learning, particularly his experiments on the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. His research laid the foundation for the scientific study of memory processes, emphasizing how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in the brain. Ebbinghaus utilized nonsense syllables to investigate memory retention, demonstrating how time affects the ability to recall information.
Semantic encoding: Semantic encoding is the process of converting information into a format that makes it easier to store and retrieve, focusing on the meaning of the information rather than just its superficial characteristics. This type of encoding helps create stronger memory traces, as it encourages deeper processing and connections to existing knowledge, which enhances the likelihood of successful recall.
Storage: Storage refers to the process of maintaining information in the brain after it has been encoded, making it available for later retrieval. It plays a crucial role in how memories are formed and organized, enabling us to recall information when needed. This term highlights the importance of not just acquiring information but also retaining it over time, which is essential for learning and cognitive functioning.
Alan Baddeley: Alan Baddeley is a prominent psychologist known for his work on the model of working memory, which expands our understanding of memory and cognition. His research has led to the identification of distinct components within working memory, including the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive, emphasizing how these elements interact to support cognitive tasks such as problem-solving and comprehension.
Chunking: Chunking is a cognitive strategy that involves breaking down complex information into smaller, manageable units, or 'chunks', to enhance memory and facilitate learning. This technique is crucial for organizing information in a way that makes it easier to encode, store, and retrieve from memory, especially in contexts where working memory is limited.
Short-term memory: Short-term memory is the capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period. It serves as a crucial component in the cognitive processing of information, allowing individuals to temporarily store and manipulate data before it is either transferred to long-term memory or forgotten. This type of memory is essential for tasks such as reasoning and comprehension, linking closely with how we encode, store, and retrieve information.
Long-term memory: Long-term memory is the system responsible for the storage of information over extended periods, ranging from days to a lifetime. It allows individuals to retain knowledge, experiences, and skills, playing a vital role in cognitive functions such as learning, problem-solving, and decision-making. Long-term memory consists of various types, including explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory, which are crucial for understanding how we encode, store, and retrieve information.