7.2 Congressional Elections

Congressional elections shape the makeup of the legislative branch every two years. House seats are up for grabs, while only a third of Senate seats are contested. These frequent elections keep lawmakers focused on their constituents and re-election prospects.

Several factors influence election outcomes, including incumbency advantage, campaign spending, and national mood. Party loyalty plays a big role, with most voters supporting their preferred party's candidates. Key issues like healthcare and the economy often dominate campaign messaging and voter priorities.

Factors in Congressional Elections

Timing and Frequency of Congressional Elections

• Congressional elections are held every two years for all 435 seats in the House of Representatives and one-third of the seats in the Senate
• The frequent nature of these elections keeps members of Congress constantly focused on their re-election prospects and responsive to shifts in public opinion

Key Factors Influencing Congressional Election Outcomes

• Power of incumbency provides significant advantages to sitting members of Congress seeking re-election (name recognition, resources, legislative record)
• Campaign spending plays a crucial role, with candidates needing to raise substantial funds to be competitive
• National mood and presidential approval ratings can influence voter preferences, particularly in midterm elections
• State of the economy, such as job growth, inflation, and economic stability, can shape voter attitudes and decisions
• Candidates' personal characteristics, such as name recognition, likeability, and perceived competence, can sway voter opinions

Role of Party Identification and Loyalty

• Party identification and loyalty are strong predictors of voting behavior in congressional elections
• Most voters tend to support candidates from their preferred party, making it difficult for candidates to win crossover votes
• Straight-ticket voting, where voters choose candidates from the same party for all offices, is common in congressional elections

Impact of Salient Issues on Campaign Agenda

• Issues that are highly salient to voters, such as healthcare, immigration, or national security, can shape the campaign agenda and influence election outcomes
• Candidates often focus their messaging and policy positions on issues that resonate with their base and swing voters
• Controversial or polarizing issues can mobilize voters and drive turnout, particularly among highly engaged partisans

Incumbency Advantage in Congress

Electoral Benefits of Incumbency

• Incumbents have higher name recognition and visibility among constituents compared to challengers
• As sitting members of Congress, incumbents have access to resources such as staff, office space, and franking privileges (free mail) to communicate with constituents and enhance their re-election prospects
• Incumbents can point to their legislative record and accomplishments in office as evidence of their effectiveness and commitment to their constituents

Challenges Faced by Challengers

• Challengers often face an uphill battle in terms of fundraising and establishing a strong campaign organization
• Without the benefits of incumbency, challengers may struggle to gain name recognition and credibility among voters
• Challengers may have difficulty attracting high-quality campaign staff and volunteers, as many prefer to work for incumbents with a proven track record

High Re-election Rates for Incumbents

• The power of incumbency has contributed to high re-election rates for members of Congress
• House incumbents typically win re-election over 90% of the time, while Senate incumbents win at slightly lower rates
• The high re-election rates have led to concerns about a lack of competition and accountability in congressional elections

Factors that Can Overcome Incumbency Advantage

• Wave elections, driven by strong national trends or a backlash against the incumbent party, can lead to higher turnover rates
• Scandals or controversies involving incumbents can damage their re-election prospects and create opportunities for challengers
• Open-seat races, where there is no incumbent running, tend to be more competitive and attract a larger field of candidates

Gerrymandering and Redistricting

Process of Redistricting

• Congressional districts are redrawn every ten years following the decennial census to account for population shifts and ensure equal representation
• State legislatures are typically responsible for redrawing district boundaries, although some states use independent commissions or other methods

Partisan Gerrymandering Tactics

• Partisan gerrymandering occurs when the party in control of the state legislature draws district lines to maximize its own political power and minimize the influence of the opposing party
• Packing refers to concentrating opposition voters into a few districts to minimize their influence in surrounding districts
• Cracking refers to dispersing opposition voters across multiple districts to dilute their voting power

Racial Gerrymandering and the Voting Rights Act

• Racial gerrymandering occurs when district lines are drawn to dilute the voting power of racial or ethnic minorities
• The Voting Rights Act prohibits racial gerrymandering and requires the creation of majority-minority districts where possible to ensure fair representation

Impact on Electoral Competition and Accountability

• Gerrymandering can lead to uncompetitive districts and reduced electoral accountability
• Incumbents in "safe" districts, where their party has a strong majority, may face little or no opposition in general elections
• Lack of competition can lead to reduced responsiveness to constituents and less incentive for bipartisan cooperation

Influence on Partisan Composition of Congress

• Redistricting can have a significant impact on the partisan composition of Congress
• The party in control of the redistricting process often gains seats in the next election by creating more favorable districts for its candidates
• Shifts in party control of state legislatures can lead to changes in congressional representation as districts are redrawn to advantage the new majority party

Campaign Finance and Congressional Elections

High Cost of Congressional Campaigns

• Congressional campaigns are expensive undertakings, with candidates often needing to raise millions of dollars to be competitive
• The high cost of campaigns has led to concerns about the influence of money in politics and the time members of Congress spend fundraising

Sources of Campaign Funds

• Candidates can raise money through individual contributions, subject to limits set by the Federal Election Commission (FEC)
• Political Action Committees (PACs) pool contributions from members and donate to candidates or parties that support their interests, subject to contribution limits and disclosure requirements
• Super PACs can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money on independent expenditures (advertising), but cannot coordinate directly with candidates or parties
• Party committees, such as the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) and the National Republican Congressional Committee (NRCC), provide financial support to their party's candidates

Impact of Campaign Spending on Election Outcomes

• Research has shown that campaign spending can have a significant impact on election outcomes, particularly in competitive races where candidates are less well-known
• Candidates who are able to raise and spend more money tend to have an advantage in terms of voter outreach, advertising, and mobilization efforts
• The influence of money in politics has led to concerns about the level playing field and the ability of candidates without access to wealthy donors to compete effectively

Concerns about Influence of Wealthy Donors and Special Interests

• Critics argue that the reliance on campaign contributions from wealthy donors and special interest groups gives them undue influence over the political process
• The perception of influence can undermine public trust in government and lead to cynicism about the responsiveness of elected officials to their constituents
• Efforts to reform campaign finance laws, such as limits on contributions and increased disclosure requirements, have been met with legal challenges and partisan disagreements

Potential for Conflicts of Interest

• The demand for campaign funds has led to concerns about the potential for conflicts of interest, as members of Congress may feel pressure to support policies favored by their donors
• The "revolving door" between government and lobbying firms, where former members of Congress and staff go to work for industries they previously regulated, can create the appearance of undue influence
• Strict ethics rules and disclosure requirements aim to mitigate the potential for conflicts of interest, but concerns persist about the role of money in shaping policy decisions