Intro to Psychology
Table of Contents
Prenatal development is a fascinating journey from conception to birth. It involves three stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal, each with unique milestones. Proper prenatal care is crucial for healthy development, including regular check-ups and avoiding harmful substances.
After birth, infants rapidly develop physically, cognitively, and emotionally. Milestones continue through toddlerhood, early childhood, and beyond. Developmental psychology explores these changes, considering nature vs. nurture and critical periods in human growth.
Prenatal Development and Infancy
Stages of prenatal development
- Germinal stage occurs in the first 2 weeks after conception
- Fertilized egg rapidly divides and attaches to the uterine wall (implantation)
- Formation of the placenta and amniotic sac supports fetal development
- Embryonic stage spans from weeks 3-8
- Rapid cell differentiation and organ development takes place (heart, brain)
- Vulnerable to teratogens which can cause birth defects (alcohol, drugs)
- Fetal stage lasts from week 9 until birth
- Continued growth and development of organs and systems (lungs, digestive)
- Responds to stimuli (sound) and can be monitored through ultrasound
- Significance of prenatal care ensures healthy development
- Regular check-ups monitor the health of the mother and fetus
- Proper nutrition (folic acid) and avoidance of harmful substances (smoking)
- Early detection and intervention for potential complications (gestational diabetes)
Milestones from infancy to childhood
- Infancy spans from birth to 1 year
- Physical: Rapid growth, development of reflexes (grasping) and motor skills (rolling over)
- Cognitive: Sensorimotor stage (Piaget), object permanence (peek-a-boo)
- Emotional: Attachment to caregivers (secure, insecure), stranger anxiety
- Toddlerhood occurs between 1-3 years
- Physical: Improved gross (walking) and fine motor skills (drawing), toilet training
- Cognitive: Preoperational stage (Piaget), language development (two-word phrases)
- Emotional: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (Erikson), self-awareness (recognizing self in mirror)
- Early childhood lasts from 3-6 years
- Physical: Continued growth, improved coordination (riding a tricycle)
- Cognitive: Preoperational stage (Piaget), theory of mind (understanding others' perspectives)
- Emotional: Initiative vs. guilt (Erikson), gender identity (preferring same-sex playmates)
- Middle and late childhood spans from 6-11 years
- Physical: Slow and steady growth, improved motor skills (riding a bicycle)
- Cognitive: Concrete operational stage (Piaget), logical thinking (math problems)
- Emotional: Industry vs. inferiority (Erikson), peer relationships (friendships)
Developmental Psychology and Key Concepts
- Developmental psychology studies how people grow and change over time
- Nature vs. nurture debate examines the influence of genetics and environment on development
- Critical periods are specific time windows when certain abilities or traits are most readily developed
- Developmental milestones are significant physical, cognitive, and social-emotional achievements
- Scaffolding involves providing temporary support to help children master new skills and concepts
Adolescence and Adulthood
Developmental changes in adolescence
- Physical changes mark the onset of puberty
- Puberty: Sexual maturation and development of secondary sex characteristics (pubic hair)
- Growth spurt and changes in body composition (muscle mass in males)
- Cognitive changes enable more complex thinking
- Formal operational stage (Piaget): Abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning
- Increased risk-taking and impulsivity due to prefrontal cortex development
- Emotional and social changes shape identity and relationships
- Identity vs. role confusion (Erikson): Exploration of personal identity (career goals)
- Increased importance of peer relationships and social acceptance (cliques)
- Emotional volatility and mood swings influenced by hormonal changes
- Challenges and opportunities arise during this transitional period
- Navigating changing relationships with family (increased conflict) and peers
- Increased independence and responsibility (part-time jobs)
- Exploration of romantic relationships and sexuality (dating)
Development throughout adulthood
- Early adulthood spans from 20s-30s
- Physical: Peak physical functioning, fertility (ability to conceive)
- Cognitive: Continued development of executive functions and decision-making skills (impulse control)
- Emotional: Intimacy vs. isolation (Erikson), establishing long-term relationships (marriage)
- Middle adulthood occurs during 40s-50s
- Physical: Gradual decline in sensory abilities (vision) and metabolism (weight gain)
- Cognitive: Maintained or improved crystallized intelligence, possible decline in fluid intelligence (problem-solving)
- Emotional: Generativity vs. stagnation (Erikson), focus on contributing to society (volunteering) and future generations (parenting)
- Late adulthood begins in 60s and beyond
- Physical: Increased risk of chronic diseases (arthritis), decline in physical abilities (mobility)
- Cognitive: Possible decline in processing speed and memory, maintained crystallized intelligence (wisdom)
- Emotional: Ego integrity vs. despair (Erikson), reflection on life experiences and accomplishments (legacy)
- Successful aging involves proactive strategies
- Maintaining physical health through exercise (walking) and proper nutrition (balanced diet)
- Engaging in mentally stimulating activities (puzzles) and social interactions (community centers)
- Finding purpose and meaning in life, adapting to changes (retirement) and challenges (loss of loved ones)
Key Terms to Review (27)
Nature vs. Nurture: The nature vs. nurture debate is a fundamental concept in psychology that explores the relative influence of an individual's innate characteristics (nature) versus environmental and experiential factors (nurture) on their development, behavior, and overall personality. This key term is central to understanding the field of psychology and its various subfields, including the history of the discipline, contemporary approaches, the study of intelligence, lifespan development, and personality theory.
Jean Piaget: Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who made significant contributions to the understanding of child development and cognitive psychology. His work has had a lasting impact on the field of psychology, particularly in the areas of history, contemporary approaches, and stages of development.
Developmental Psychology: Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how people change over the course of their lives, from conception to death. It examines the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur throughout an individual's lifespan, providing insights into the factors that influence human development.
Puberty: Puberty is the transitional stage of development between childhood and adulthood, characterized by significant physical, hormonal, and psychological changes. It is a crucial period that marks the onset of sexual maturation and the ability to reproduce.
Sensorimotor Stage: The sensorimotor stage is the first of the six stages of cognitive development proposed by Jean Piaget, which spans from birth to around 2 years of age. During this stage, infants and toddlers learn about the world primarily through their senses and motor skills, as they begin to understand that objects exist even when they cannot be seen.
Object Permanence: Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. It is a key concept in the study of cognitive development, particularly in the context of early childhood.
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Intimacy vs. Isolation is a key concept in developmental psychology that describes the psychosocial crisis individuals face during the young adulthood stage of the lifespan. This term refers to the struggle between developing close, meaningful relationships with others and the potential to become socially withdrawn and isolated if this need is not met.
Industry vs. Inferiority: Industry vs. Inferiority is a key concept in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, which describes the stages of personality development throughout the lifespan. This term refers to the conflict that arises during the latency stage of development, typically between the ages of 6 and 12, where children must learn to be productive and competent in order to avoid feelings of inadequacy and inferiority.
Identity vs. Role Confusion: Identity vs. role confusion is a key stage in Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of development. It describes the struggle adolescents face in establishing a coherent sense of self and determining their role in society as they transition from childhood to adulthood.
Developmental Milestones: Developmental milestones are specific skills or behaviors that children typically acquire by certain ages, marking their progress through the stages of development. These milestones serve as important benchmarks for assessing a child's physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development over time.
Critical Periods: Critical periods refer to specific windows of time during an organism's development when certain experiences or environmental factors can have a profound and lasting impact on the individual's growth, behavior, and overall functioning. These periods are characterized by heightened sensitivity and responsiveness to particular stimuli or experiences, and they play a crucial role in shaping an individual's physical, cognitive, and social development.
Initiative vs. Guilt: Initiative vs. Guilt is a key concept in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, which outlines the stages of human development across the lifespan. This term refers to the developmental crisis that occurs during the preschool years, where children must navigate the balance between taking initiative and exploring their environment, and feeling guilty about their actions and desires.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt is a key concept in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. It describes the developmental stage where children strive to gain a sense of independence and control over their own actions, while also facing the potential for feelings of shame and self-doubt if they are not given the appropriate level of freedom and guidance.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair: Ego integrity vs. despair is a key concept in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, which describes the final stage of an individual's life cycle. Ego integrity refers to the sense of acceptance and satisfaction with one's life, while despair represents the feeling of regret, bitterness, and fear of death. This term is closely connected to the individual's ability to reflect on their life and find meaning in their experiences as they approach the end of their lifespan.
Preoperational Stage: The preoperational stage is a critical phase in the cognitive development of children, as outlined in Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development. This stage typically occurs between the ages of 2 and 7 years old and is characterized by the child's growing ability to represent the world through language and mental imagery, though their thinking remains largely egocentric and intuitive.
Attachment: Attachment refers to the deep, emotional bond that develops between an infant and their primary caregiver, typically the mother. This bond is crucial for the child's social, emotional, and cognitive development, as it shapes their understanding of relationships and the world around them.
Generativity vs. Stagnation: Generativity vs. stagnation is a key concept in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, which describes the stages an individual goes through throughout their lifespan. This term specifically refers to the seventh stage of development, which occurs during middle adulthood, between the ages of approximately 40 and 65 years old.
Concrete Operational Stage: The concrete operational stage is a phase in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, characterized by the child's ability to think logically about concrete events and objects. This stage typically occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years old, marking a significant cognitive advancement from the previous preoperational stage.
Formal Operational Stage: The formal operational stage is the fourth and final stage of cognitive development as proposed by the renowned psychologist Jean Piaget. This stage typically begins around age 11 or 12 and continues into adulthood, marking a significant advancement in an individual's ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and solve complex problems.
Embryonic Stage: The embryonic stage is a crucial phase in human development that occurs during the first eight weeks of pregnancy. It is a time of rapid cell division, tissue differentiation, and the formation of the major organs and body systems.
Germinal Stage: The germinal stage is the first stage of human development, occurring immediately after fertilization. It is the initial period where the zygote, formed by the union of the sperm and egg, undergoes a series of rapid cell divisions and implants into the uterine lining, marking the beginning of pregnancy.
Teratogens: Teratogens are environmental factors that can interfere with the normal development of the embryo or fetus, leading to birth defects or congenital abnormalities. These substances can have a negative impact on the stages of development during pregnancy, particularly in the early stages of fetal growth.
Theory of Mind: Theory of mind refers to the ability to attribute mental states, such as beliefs, desires, and intentions, to oneself and others, and to understand that others have mental states that may differ from one's own. It is a crucial cognitive capacity that develops during childhood and underlies our social interactions and understanding of the world around us.
Stranger Anxiety: Stranger anxiety is a developmental stage in infancy where a child becomes fearful or distressed in the presence of unfamiliar people or strangers. It typically emerges around 8-12 months of age and is considered a normal and adaptive response as the child develops a stronger attachment to their primary caregivers.
Erik Erikson: Erik Erikson was a renowned psychologist who developed a comprehensive theory of psychosocial development, which outlines the key stages and challenges individuals face throughout their lifespan. Erikson's theory is particularly relevant in the context of understanding human development and the Neo-Freudian perspective on personality formation.
Scaffolding: Scaffolding refers to the temporary support or guidance provided to an individual, particularly a child, to help them accomplish a task or develop a skill that they would not be able to do independently. It is a concept often discussed in the context of cognitive development and learning theories.
Fetal Stage: The fetal stage is the final and most critical period of prenatal development, spanning from the 9th week of pregnancy until birth. During this stage, the fetus undergoes rapid growth and maturation, transitioning from an embryo to a fully formed infant ready for life outside the womb.