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Intro to Psychology
Table of Contents
Unit 8 Overview: Memory
8.1 How Memory Functions
8.2 Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory
8.3 Problems with Memory
8.4 Ways to Enhance Memory

Memory errors and amnesia are fascinating aspects of how our brains store and retrieve information. These phenomena reveal the complexities of our memory systems and the various ways they can malfunction or be manipulated.

Understanding memory errors is crucial for fields like psychology and law enforcement. It helps us recognize the limitations of eyewitness testimony and the importance of corroborating evidence in legal proceedings.

Memory Errors and Amnesia

Retrograde vs anterograde amnesia

  • Retrograde amnesia involves the inability to recall memories formed before the onset of amnesia, caused by damage to regions involved in long-term memory storage (temporal lobes, hippocampus)
    • Older memories tend to be less affected than more recent ones
  • Anterograde amnesia involves the inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia, caused by damage to regions involved in memory formation (hippocampus, medial temporal lobes)
    • Short-term memory and procedural memory may remain intact (remembering a phone number for a few minutes, riding a bike)
  • Memory consolidation, the process of stabilizing a memory trace after initial acquisition, can be disrupted in both types of amnesia

Unreliability of eyewitness testimony

  • Misinformation effect occurs when exposure to misleading information after an event alters the original memory
    • Leading questions or false information provided by investigators can distort eyewitness accounts (suggesting the suspect had a beard when they did not)
  • Confirmation bias involves the tendency to seek out or interpret information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs
    • Eyewitnesses may unconsciously adjust their testimony to fit their expectations or biases (believing the suspect is guilty based on appearance)
  • High levels of stress or emotional arousal during an event can impair memory formation and retrieval
    • Eyewitnesses may have difficulty accurately recalling details of a traumatic or emotionally charged event (witnessing a violent crime)
  • Memory accuracy tends to decline over time, and details may be forgotten or distorted as the delay between the event and testimony increases
    • Eyewitness accounts given months after the event are less reliable than immediate statements
  • The process of memory reconstruction during recall can lead to inaccuracies in eyewitness testimony

Encoding failure in memory formation

  • Insufficient attention during encoding can prevent memory formation
    • Divided attention or lack of focus results in poor memory retention (trying to memorize a list while watching TV)
  • Shallow processing or failure to meaningfully connect new information to existing knowledge hinders memory formation
    • Elaborative rehearsal, such as relating information to personal experiences or creating associations, enhances memory encoding (using a mnemonic device to remember a sequence)
  • Encoding information without sufficient contextual cues can make later retrieval difficult
    • Associating new information with specific cues, such as location or sensory details, facilitates future recall (remembering you left your keys by the front door)
  • High cognitive load during encoding can impair memory formation and later recall

Common memory errors

  • False memories are memories of events that did not actually occur or memories that are distorted from reality
    • Can be induced by suggestive questioning, misinformation, or confabulation (vividly remembering an event from childhood that never happened)
  • Source confusion involves difficulty remembering the origin or source of a memory
    • Misattributing information to the wrong source, such as confusing a dream with reality or mixing up details from different events (thinking you told a friend about your promotion, but you actually just thought about telling them)
  • Cryptomnesia is unintentional plagiarism or the belief that a memory is original when it has actually been encountered before
    • Occurs when an individual mistakes a previously experienced idea or information as their own (accidentally using a line from a movie in your writing, thinking it's your original idea)

Interference effects on recall

  • Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the ability to recall newer, similar information
    • Old memories disrupt the retrieval of more recent memories (difficulty remembering a new coworker's name because it's similar to a previous coworker's name)
  • Retroactive interference occurs when newly learned information interferes with the ability to recall previously learned, similar information
    • New memories disrupt the retrieval of older memories (forgetting the original version of a recipe after learning a modified version)

Types of Memory and Retrieval Processes

Long-term memory systems

  • Episodic memory involves the storage and recall of specific personal experiences and events
  • Semantic memory encompasses general knowledge and facts about the world, independent of personal experience
  • Both episodic and semantic memories rely on effective retrieval cues for successful recall

Working memory

  • Serves as a temporary storage and manipulation system for information currently in use
  • Limited capacity and duration, playing a crucial role in cognitive tasks and information processing

Factors Influencing Eyewitness Testimony

Unreliability of eyewitness testimony

  • Weapon focus occurs when the presence of a weapon during a crime narrows an eyewitness's attention, reducing their ability to recall other details
    • Eyewitnesses may have a clear memory of the weapon but poor recall of the perpetrator's appearance or other aspects of the scene (vividly remembering the gun but not the shooter's face)
  • Cross-race effect refers to the difficulty in accurately identifying faces of individuals from different racial or ethnic backgrounds
    • Eyewitnesses are more likely to make errors when identifying suspects of a different race than their own (a white eyewitness misidentifying a black suspect)
  • Unconscious transference involves mistakenly identifying a familiar but innocent person as the perpetrator of a crime
    • Occurs when an eyewitness confuses a person seen in one context with a person seen in another context (misidentifying a bystander seen at the crime scene as the perpetrator)

Key Terms to Review (21)

Confirmation Bias: Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, focus on, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. It is a cognitive bias that can significantly impact various aspects of research, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Working Memory: Working memory is a cognitive system that temporarily holds and manipulates information necessary for complex cognitive tasks. It is a crucial component of cognition, allowing us to store and process information in the present moment, which is essential for activities like problem-solving, decision-making, and learning.
Episodic Memory: Episodic memory refers to the autobiographical, personal recollection of specific events, experiences, and the contextual details associated with them. It is a type of declarative memory that allows individuals to remember past events and situations they have experienced firsthand.
Anterograde Amnesia: Anterograde amnesia is a type of memory impairment where individuals have difficulty forming new memories, or encoding information, after a certain point in time, usually following a brain injury or other neurological condition. This term is closely related to how memory functions, the parts of the brain involved with memory, and problems with memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Elaborative rehearsal is a memory strategy that involves actively connecting new information to existing knowledge in order to enhance long-term retention and recall. It goes beyond simply repeating information, and instead focuses on creating meaningful associations and deeper understanding of the material.
Memory Reconstruction: Memory reconstruction is the process by which our memories are not perfectly preserved, but are instead actively reconstructed based on various factors, including our existing knowledge, beliefs, and experiences. This can lead to distortions, inaccuracies, and false memories.
Semantic Memory: Semantic memory refers to our general knowledge about the world, including facts, concepts, and meanings of words. It is a part of our long-term memory that stores our accumulated knowledge and understanding, independent of the specific experiences or events in which that knowledge was acquired.
Retrograde Amnesia: Retrograde amnesia is a form of memory impairment where an individual loses the ability to recall information or events that occurred before a particular point in time, usually before a brain injury or trauma. This type of amnesia is closely related to the concepts of how memory functions and the problems that can arise with memory.
Encoding Failure: Encoding failure refers to the inability to effectively store information in memory, preventing it from being successfully retrieved later. This term is particularly relevant in the context of problems with memory, as it highlights one of the key reasons why individuals may struggle to remember certain experiences or facts.
Unconscious Transference: Unconscious transference is a cognitive bias where people unconsciously associate a memory or experience with the wrong source. It occurs when individuals misattribute a stimulus or experience to the wrong person or situation, often due to similarities or overlap between the actual and false sources.
Cross-Race Effect: The cross-race effect, also known as the other-race effect, refers to the phenomenon where individuals have more difficulty recognizing and remembering faces of people from a different racial or ethnic group than their own. This effect has important implications for memory and eyewitness identification in the context of problems with memory.
Memory Consolidation: Memory consolidation is the process by which newly acquired information is transformed into a more stable and long-lasting form of memory. It involves the strengthening and stabilization of neural connections and pathways, allowing memories to be stored and retrieved more efficiently over time. This term is crucial in understanding how memory functions, the problems associated with memory, and ways to enhance memory.
Source Confusion: Source confusion, also known as source monitoring error, refers to the phenomenon where individuals have difficulty accurately recalling the original source or origin of a piece of information or memory. This can lead to misattributions, where people incorrectly attribute a memory or piece of information to the wrong source.
Retroactive Interference: Retroactive interference is a phenomenon in memory where new information learned later interferes with the recall of information learned earlier. It is a type of memory impairment where the formation of new memories can disrupt or block the retrieval of previously stored memories.
Weapon Focus: Weapon focus refers to the tendency for eyewitnesses to a crime to focus disproportionately on a weapon used during the event, rather than on other details of the scene or perpetrator. This phenomenon can lead to impaired memory and recall of non-weapon-related information, such as the physical appearance of the perpetrator.
Cognitive Load: Cognitive load refers to the total amount of mental effort being used in the working memory during a specific task or activity. It is a crucial concept in understanding how individuals process and retain information, especially in the context of problem-solving, memory, and learning.
Proactive Interference: Proactive interference is a phenomenon in memory where previously learned information impairs or disrupts the ability to learn and recall new information. It occurs when old memories interfere with the encoding and retrieval of more recent memories, making it difficult to remember the new information.
False Memories: False memories refer to recollections of events or experiences that did not actually occur. They are distorted or fabricated memories that the individual believes to be true, despite the lack of factual evidence to support them. This term is particularly relevant in the context of how memory functions and the problems that can arise with memory.
Misinformation Effect: The misinformation effect refers to the tendency for people's recollections of an event to be influenced by post-event information. It occurs when new information introduced after an event influences a person's memory of the original event, leading to inaccurate or distorted recall.
Cryptomnesia: Cryptomnesia is a phenomenon where an individual unconsciously recalls and presents previously learned information as if it were new or original. It is a type of memory error where a person's own thoughts or ideas are mistaken for something novel or someone else's creation.
Retrieval Cues: Retrieval cues are hints or stimuli that help trigger the recall of information stored in memory. These cues can take many forms, including words, images, or even specific contexts that are associated with the memory. They play a critical role in the process of memory retrieval, as they can enhance the likelihood of successfully recalling information when it is needed.