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Intro to Psychology
Table of Contents
Unit 7 Overview: Thinking and Intelligence
7.1 What Is Cognition?
7.2 Language
7.3 Problem Solving
7.4 What Are Intelligence and Creativity?
7.5 Measures of Intelligence
7.6 The Source of Intelligence

Intelligence is a complex trait influenced by both genetics and environment. Studies suggest 40-80% of intelligence variation is genetic, but environmental factors like prenatal care, home life, and education play crucial roles in cognitive development.

IQ scores correlate with socioeconomic status, reflecting disparities in resources and opportunities. This relationship impacts educational outcomes, but isn't deterministic. Cognitive abilities include crystallized knowledge and fluid problem-solving skills, both shaped by genes and experiences.

Factors Influencing Intelligence

Genetics vs environment in intelligence

  • Heritability of intelligence
    • Studies of identical twins reared apart suggest a strong genetic component to intelligence
    • Heritability estimates range from 0.4 to 0.8, indicating that 40-80% of the variation in intelligence can be attributed to genetic factors (twin studies, adoption studies)
  • Environmental influences on intelligence
    • Prenatal factors, such as maternal nutrition and exposure to toxins (lead, alcohol), can impact cognitive development
    • Home environment, including parental involvement, cognitive stimulation (educational toys, books), and access to resources, affects intellectual growth
    • Educational opportunities and quality of schooling contribute to the development of cognitive skills (early childhood education, enrichment programs)
  • Gene-environment interactions
    • Genes and environment do not operate in isolation but interact in complex ways (nature vs. nurture)
    • Certain genetic predispositions may be activated or suppressed depending on environmental conditions (epigenetics)
    • Individuals with genetic potential for high intelligence may not fully develop their abilities without adequate environmental support (nurturing home, quality education)

IQ scores and socioeconomic factors

  • Correlation between IQ scores and socioeconomic status (SES)
    • Studies consistently show a positive correlation between IQ scores and SES
    • Children from higher SES backgrounds tend to have higher average IQ scores than those from lower SES backgrounds (parental education, income)
  • Possible explanations for the IQ-SES relationship
    • Access to resources and educational opportunities
      • Higher SES families can provide more cognitively stimulating environments and better educational resources (books, technology, extracurricular activities)
      • Lower SES families may face challenges such as limited access to quality schools and learning materials (underfunded schools, lack of resources)
    • Parental involvement and expectations
      • Parents with higher SES are more likely to be involved in their children's education and have higher educational expectations (parent-teacher conferences, homework help)
      • Parental involvement and expectations can positively influence academic achievement and cognitive development (encouragement, role models)
  • Educational outcomes and the IQ-SES relationship
    • Higher IQ scores are associated with better educational outcomes, such as higher grades and increased likelihood of pursuing higher education (college attendance, advanced degrees)
    • However, the relationship between IQ and educational outcomes is not deterministic and can be influenced by factors such as motivation, effort, and educational opportunities (resilience, grit)
    • SES can also directly impact educational outcomes, as students from lower SES backgrounds may face additional challenges and barriers to academic success (financial constraints, lack of support)

Types of Intelligence

  • Crystallized intelligence: The accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills acquired through experience and education
  • Fluid intelligence: The ability to reason, solve novel problems, and adapt to new situations independently of acquired knowledge

Cognitive Disorders and Disabilities

Learning disabilities vs developmental disorders

  • Learning disabilities
    • Specific difficulties in acquiring and applying academic skills, despite having average or above-average intelligence
    • Examples include dyslexia (difficulty with reading), dyscalculia (difficulty with math), and dysgraphia (difficulty with writing)
    • Individuals with learning disabilities may struggle in specific academic areas but often have strengths in other domains (creativity, problem-solving)
    • With appropriate accommodations and interventions (extra time on tests, assistive technology), individuals with learning disabilities can achieve academic success
  • Developmental disorders
    • Disorders characterized by impairments in cognitive, social, and adaptive functioning that emerge during the developmental period
    • Examples include autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and intellectual disability
    • ASD is characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication, and restricted or repetitive behaviors or interests (difficulty making eye contact, adherence to routines)
      • Cognitive functioning in ASD can vary widely, with some individuals having exceptional abilities in specific areas (memory, visual-spatial skills) while struggling in others
    • Intellectual disability is characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning ($IQ < 70$) and adaptive behavior
      • Severity of intellectual disability can range from mild to profound, with varying levels of impact on cognitive and daily functioning (self-care, communication)
  • Impact on cognitive functioning
    1. Learning disabilities primarily affect specific academic skills, while overall cognitive functioning remains intact
    2. Developmental disorders can have a more global impact on cognitive functioning, affecting multiple domains such as reasoning, problem-solving, and learning
    3. The severity and specific manifestations of cognitive impairments vary widely within and across different developmental disorders
    4. Early identification and intervention are crucial for supporting the cognitive and overall development of individuals with learning disabilities and developmental disorders (special education services, therapy)
    5. Neuroplasticity plays a role in the potential for improvement and adaptation in individuals with cognitive disorders and disabilities

Key Terms to Review (17)

Nature vs. Nurture: The nature vs. nurture debate is a fundamental concept in psychology that explores the relative influence of an individual's innate characteristics (nature) versus environmental and experiential factors (nurture) on their development, behavior, and overall personality. This key term is central to understanding the field of psychology and its various subfields, including the history of the discipline, contemporary approaches, the study of intelligence, lifespan development, and personality theory.
Heritability: Heritability is a statistical measure that quantifies the proportion of variation in a particular trait or characteristic that can be attributed to genetic factors within a population. It is a fundamental concept in the study of human genetics, intelligence, personality, and psychological disorders.
Epigenetics: Epigenetics is the study of how environmental and behavioral factors can influence the expression of genes without altering the underlying DNA sequence. It explores how certain genes are turned on or off, affecting an individual's physical traits and susceptibility to various diseases, without changing the genetic code.
Neuroplasticity: Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to adapt, change, and reorganize itself in response to experience, learning, and environmental demands. It is a fundamental property of the nervous system that allows for the modification of neural pathways and synaptic connections throughout an individual's lifespan.
IQ: IQ, or Intelligence Quotient, is a score derived from standardized tests that are designed to measure an individual's cognitive abilities, such as reasoning, problem-solving, and memory. It is often used as an indicator of a person's intellectual potential and is a widely discussed concept in the field of psychology.
Intelligence: Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge, skills, and understanding to adapt to new situations and solve problems effectively. It encompasses various cognitive abilities, including reasoning, problem-solving, learning, memory, and decision-making, which enable individuals to navigate their environment and achieve their goals.
Fluid Intelligence: Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to reason, problem-solve, and adapt to new situations, independent of acquired knowledge or skills. It is a key component of overall intelligence that reflects an individual's capacity for abstract thinking, pattern recognition, and the ability to quickly process and apply new information.
Crystallized Intelligence: Crystallized intelligence refers to the accumulated knowledge, skills, and abilities that an individual has acquired through education, experience, and exposure to information over the course of their lifetime. It is a type of cognitive ability that is influenced by an individual's cultural and educational background, as well as their life experiences.
Dyslexia: Dyslexia is a learning disorder that involves difficulty with reading, writing, and spelling. It is a neurological condition that affects the way the brain processes language, making it challenging for individuals to accurately and fluently recognize and manipulate the sounds of speech. Dyslexia is particularly relevant in the context of understanding the sources of intelligence, as it highlights how certain cognitive differences can impact academic performance and learning.
Dysgraphia: Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects a person's ability to write and produce written language. It is characterized by difficulties with handwriting, spelling, and the physical act of writing, often resulting in poor penmanship and struggles with written expression.
Autism Spectrum Disorder: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent challenges in social communication and interaction, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. It is a lifelong condition that affects how a person perceives and interacts with the world around them, often presenting a unique set of strengths and difficulties.
Cognitive Development: Cognitive development refers to the process by which individuals acquire and develop their mental abilities, including perception, learning, memory, problem-solving, and reasoning. It is a crucial aspect of human development that shapes how we understand and interact with the world around us.
Intellectual Disability: Intellectual disability is a condition characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, which affects a person's ability to learn, reason, problem-solve, and function in everyday life. It is a lifelong condition that typically manifests during the developmental period, before the age of 18.
Twin Studies: Twin studies are a research method used in psychology and genetics to investigate the relative influence of genetic and environmental factors on human traits and behaviors. By studying the similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins, researchers can gain insights into the heritability of various characteristics.
Adoption Studies: Adoption studies are a research method used in psychology to investigate the influence of genetic and environmental factors on human traits and behaviors. These studies compare individuals who have been adopted to their biological and adoptive families in order to disentangle the effects of nature and nurture.
Dyscalculia: Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person's ability to understand, learn, and perform mathematical calculations and concepts. It is a neurological condition that impairs an individual's capacity to process numerical information and grasp mathematical relationships effectively.
Socioeconomic Status: Socioeconomic status (SES) is a measure of an individual or family's social and economic position in relation to others, based on factors such as income, education, occupation, and wealth. It is a crucial concept in understanding the source of intelligence and how it can be influenced by various environmental and societal factors.