🫁Honors Anatomy and Physiology Unit 18 – Advanced Anatomy & Physiology Topics

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Homeostasis maintains stable internal environment through feedback mechanisms (negative feedback, positive feedback)
• Negative feedback loops counteract changes to maintain stability
  • Includes thermoregulation, blood glucose regulation, and blood pressure control
• Positive feedback loops amplify changes leading to a new state (childbirth, blood clotting)
• Anatomical terminology describes body positions and directions
  • Includes superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal
• Histology studies microscopic anatomy of tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous)
• Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions in the body for energy production and cellular processes
• Apoptosis programmed cell death essential for development, homeostasis, and preventing diseases (cancer)

Anatomical Structures and Their Functions

• Integumentary system consists of skin, hair, nails, and exocrine glands
  • Functions include protection, thermoregulation, sensation, and synthesis of vitamin D
• Skeletal system provides structural support, protection for organs, and attachment points for muscles
  • Consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons
• Muscular system enables movement, maintains posture, and generates heat
  • Includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle tissues
• Nervous system coordinates and controls body functions through electrical and chemical signals
  • Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) integrates information and directs responses
  • Peripheral nervous system (cranial and spinal nerves) relays signals between CNS and body
• Endocrine system secretes hormones to regulate growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis
  • Major glands include pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, and reproductive glands

Physiological Systems and Processes

• Cardiovascular system transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body
  • Consists of heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood
  • Pulmonary circulation oxygenates blood in lungs; systemic circulation delivers oxygenated blood to tissues
• Respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between air and blood
  • Includes nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
  • Ventilation, gas exchange, and cellular respiration are key processes
• Digestive system breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste
  • Consists of mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and accessory organs (liver, pancreas, gallbladder)
  • Mechanical and chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation are main processes
• Urinary system regulates fluid and electrolyte balance, filters blood, and removes waste
  • Includes kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra
  • Nephrons are functional units of kidneys; filtration, reabsorption, and secretion occur here
• Reproductive system produces gametes and sex hormones for sexual reproduction
  • Male system includes testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis
  • Female system includes ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, and vagina

Advanced Diagnostic Techniques

• Imaging techniques visualize internal structures and functions non-invasively
  • X-rays use ionizing radiation to create 2D images of dense tissues (bones, teeth)
  • Computed tomography (CT) uses X-rays to generate detailed cross-sectional images
  • Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high-resolution images of soft tissues
  • Ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to visualize real-time images (fetal development, heart function)
• Endoscopy involves inserting a flexible tube with a camera into body cavities for direct visualization
  • Examples include colonoscopy (large intestine), gastroscopy (stomach), and bronchoscopy (airways)
• Biopsy involves removing a tissue sample for microscopic examination to diagnose diseases (cancer)
• Genetic testing analyzes DNA to identify genetic disorders, predispositions, and personalized treatment options
  • Includes karyotyping, DNA sequencing, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Clinical Applications and Case Studies

• Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) affect heart and blood vessels
  • Atherosclerosis buildup of plaque in arteries leading to narrowing and reduced blood flow
  • Myocardial infarction (heart attack) occurs when coronary artery is blocked, causing tissue death
  • Congestive heart failure (CHF) occurs when heart cannot pump blood efficiently
• Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels
  • Type 1 diabetes results from autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells, requiring insulin injections
  • Type 2 diabetes involves insulin resistance and reduced insulin production, managed through diet, exercise, and medications
• Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth and division leading to tumor formation and metastasis
  • Caused by genetic mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes
  • Common types include lung, breast, prostate, and colorectal cancers
  • Treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and targeted therapies
• Neurological disorders affect the nervous system
  • Alzheimer's disease progressive neurodegenerative disorder causing memory loss and cognitive decline
  • Parkinson's disease involves loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, leading to tremors and movement difficulties
  • Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder that damages myelin sheaths, disrupting nerve signaling

Research and Current Developments

• Stem cell research explores the potential of stem cells to regenerate tissues and treat diseases
  • Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent and can differentiate into any cell type
  • Adult stem cells are multipotent and found in various tissues (bone marrow, adipose tissue)
  • Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are reprogrammed adult cells with embryonic-like properties
• Gene therapy involves introducing functional genes into cells to replace defective ones
  • Viral vectors (adenoviruses, retroviruses) are used to deliver genes into target cells
  • Applications include treating genetic disorders, cancers, and infectious diseases
• Personalized medicine tailors treatments based on an individual's genetic profile, lifestyle, and environment
  • Pharmacogenomics studies how genes influence drug response and guides drug selection and dosing
  • Precision oncology uses molecular profiling to identify targeted therapies for specific cancer types
• Microbiome research investigates the role of gut bacteria in health and disease
  • Dysbiosis imbalance in gut microbiota composition is linked to various conditions (obesity, inflammatory bowel disease)
  • Probiotics and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) are potential therapeutic interventions

Lab Work and Practical Skills

• Microscopy techniques are used to visualize cells, tissues, and microorganisms
  • Light microscopy uses visible light and lenses to magnify specimens
  • Electron microscopy (scanning, transmission) uses electron beams for higher resolution images
  • Fluorescence microscopy uses fluorescent dyes to label specific molecules or structures
• Histological techniques involve preparing and staining tissue samples for microscopic examination
  • Fixation preserves tissue structure and prevents decay
  • Embedding in paraffin wax or plastic supports thin sectioning
  • Staining with dyes (hematoxylin and eosin) enhances contrast and highlights specific components
• Dissection skills are essential for understanding anatomical structures and their relationships
  • Proper use of dissection tools (scalpel, forceps, scissors) is crucial
  • Systematic approach involves identifying and isolating structures, noting their connections and functions
• Physiological measurements assess body functions and vital signs
  • Blood pressure measurement using sphygmomanometer and stethoscope
  • Electrocardiography (ECG) records electrical activity of the heart
  • Spirometry measures lung volumes and capacities to assess respiratory function

Exam Prep and Study Tips

• Create a study schedule to manage time effectively and cover all topics
  • Break down material into manageable chunks and set realistic goals
  • Allocate more time to challenging concepts and practice problems
• Use active learning strategies to engage with the material
  • Summarize key points in your own words to test understanding
  • Create concept maps or diagrams to visualize connections between ideas
  • Teach others or explain concepts out loud to reinforce learning
• Utilize various study resources to reinforce understanding
  • Textbooks provide in-depth explanations and illustrations
  • Lecture notes highlight important concepts and examples
  • Online resources (videos, animations, quizzes) offer interactive learning experiences
• Practice answering questions and solving problems to apply knowledge
  • Review past exams and practice questions to familiarize yourself with the format and content
  • Analyze incorrect answers to identify areas for improvement and clarify misconceptions
• Collaborate with classmates to discuss concepts, share insights, and test each other
  • Study groups can provide different perspectives and help fill knowledge gaps
  • Teaching others can deepen your own understanding and reveal areas for further study
• Take care of your physical and mental well-being during exam preparation
  • Get sufficient sleep, maintain a balanced diet, and exercise regularly to manage stress
  • Take breaks to recharge and avoid burnout
  • Seek help from instructors, tutors, or counselors if needed for academic or personal support