9.4 Initial U.S. policies toward Southwestern tribes

U.S. policies in the Southwest after the Mexican-American War drastically changed Native American life. Treaties, land grabs, and the reservation system pushed tribes off their ancestral lands. The government aimed to confine and assimilate Native peoples.

These policies disrupted tribal social structures, economies, and political autonomy. Many tribes resisted through armed conflict or negotiation. Despite challenges, Native Americans worked to preserve their cultures and fight for their rights.

U.S. Policies in the Southwest

Treaties and Land Acquisition

• The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 ended the Mexican-American War resulted in the cession of a large portion of the Southwest to the United States (modern-day California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming), including areas inhabited by numerous Native American tribes
• The Gadsden Purchase in 1854 acquired additional territory from Mexico in present-day southern Arizona and New Mexico further encroached on the lands of Southwestern tribes such as the Apache, Tohono O'odham, and Yaqui

Reservation System and Land Allotment

• The Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern-day Oklahoma restricted the land available for Native American tribes and aimed to confine them to designated areas
• The Reservation System, established through various treaties and acts in the late 19th century (Treaty of Bosque Redondo, Treaty of Medicine Lodge), confined Native American tribes to designated areas opened up more land for American settlement and facilitated assimilation efforts
• The Dawes Act of 1887, also known as the General Allotment Act, divided tribal lands into individual allotments (160 acres per family head, 80 acres per single adult) encouraged assimilation and broke up tribal structures by promoting private land ownership and Western agricultural practices

Removal and Assimilation Policies

• The Indian Removal policy aimed to push Native American tribes west of the Mississippi River (Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma) made room for American settlers and impacted tribes in the Southwest who were forced to relocate from their ancestral lands
• The Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged westward expansion by offering settlers 160 acres of public land led to increased conflicts with Native American tribes in the Southwest as more settlers moved into the region and encroached on tribal territories
• Assimilation policies, such as the establishment of boarding schools (Carlisle Indian Industrial School) and the suppression of Native languages and cultural practices, aimed to "civilize" Native American children and erode tribal identities and social cohesion

Impacts on Southwestern Tribes

Disruption of Social and Cultural Structures

• The forced relocation and confinement to reservations disrupted the traditional social structures, kinship networks, and community organization of Southwestern tribes fragmented families and clans and undermined traditional leadership roles
• The assimilation policies, such as the promotion of Western education and the suppression of Native languages and cultural practices (ceremonies, dances, traditional clothing), aimed to erode tribal identities and social cohesion weakened the transmission of cultural knowledge and practices to younger generations
• The division of tribal lands into individual allotments under the Dawes Act undermined the communal land ownership and use practices of many Southwestern tribes disrupted traditional land management and resource sharing practices

Economic and Subsistence Challenges

• The loss of ancestral lands and restrictions on mobility hindered the ability of tribes to maintain their traditional subsistence practices (hunting, gathering, agriculture) led to increased dependence on government rations and assistance
• The confinement to reservations and the loss of traditional economic activities led to increased poverty, malnutrition, and health problems among Southwestern tribes limited access to resources and economic opportunities
• Tribes adapted their economic practices to the changing circumstances engaged in trade with American settlers, participated in the cash economy (selling crops, livestock, crafts), or sought wage labor opportunities (mining, railroad construction) to supplement traditional subsistence activities

Political and Sovereignty Issues

• The removal of tribes from their ancestral lands and the influx of American settlers disrupted the political autonomy and decision-making structures of Southwestern tribes undermined traditional leadership and governance systems
• The erosion of tribal land bases and the assimilation efforts weakened the ability of Southwestern tribes to maintain their distinct political and cultural institutions diminished their negotiating power and ability to assert their sovereignty
• The U.S. government's failure to uphold treaty obligations and the lack of recognition of tribal sovereignty led to ongoing struggles for Native American rights and self-determination in the Southwest

Native American Resistance and Adaptation

Armed Resistance and Negotiations

• Many Southwestern tribes engaged in armed resistance against U.S. military forces and settlers to defend their lands, resources, and way of life (Apache Wars led by Geronimo and Cochise, Navajo Long Walk and resistance led by Manuelito)
• Some tribal leaders sought to negotiate treaties and agreements with the U.S. government to protect their lands and rights (Treaty of Santa Fe in 1852 with the Tesuque Pueblo, Treaty of Fort Sumner in 1868 with the Navajo) although these agreements were often violated or ignored by the government

Cultural Preservation and Resilience

• Many Southwestern tribes worked to maintain their cultural traditions and practices, such as language, religion, and art, despite the assimilation pressures and the suppression of their cultures (Pueblo pottery, Navajo weaving, Apache storytelling)
• Tribes developed strategies to preserve and pass on their cultural knowledge and identities to younger generations through oral histories, ceremonies (Pueblo kachina dances, Navajo Blessing Way), and the continuation of traditional practices (agriculture, herding, crafts)
• Native American artists and activists used their creative expressions to assert their cultural identities, resist assimilation, and raise awareness about the experiences and struggles of their communities (San Ildefonso Pueblo artist Maria Martinez, Hopi artist Fred Kabotie)

Political Advocacy and Sovereignty Struggles

• Some Native American leaders and activists advocated for tribal sovereignty and the recognition of their rights through legal and political means formation of the National Congress of American Indians in 1944 to lobby for Native American interests and rights
• Tribes challenged the U.S. government's policies and actions through lawsuits and legal battles (United States v. Sandoval in 1913 affirmed Pueblo land rights, Arizona v. California in 1963 secured water rights for Colorado River tribes)
• Many Southwestern tribes adapted to the reservation system by building new forms of community organization, such as tribal governments and social institutions (Navajo Nation Council, All Indian Pueblo Council), to maintain their collective identities and advocate for their interests
• Native American activists and organizations worked to reclaim and protect sacred sites, cultural resources, and ancestral lands (Taos Blue Lake returned to Taos Pueblo in 1970, San Francisco Peaks protected as sacred site for Southwestern tribes)