🌽History of Native Americans in the Southwest Unit 10 – Native American Treaties and Reservations

Historical Context

• European colonization of the Americas began in the late 15th century, leading to widespread displacement and conflict with indigenous populations
• Native American tribes had diverse cultures, languages, and political structures prior to European contact
• Westward expansion of the United States in the 19th century increased pressure on Native American lands and resources
• U.S. government policies shifted from treaty-making to forced relocation and assimilation of Native American tribes
• The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the President to negotiate removal treaties with Native American tribes east of the Mississippi River
  • Led to the forced relocation of thousands of Native Americans to designated Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma)
  • Resulted in the Trail of Tears, a series of forced marches that caused widespread suffering and death among the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations
• The Dawes Act of 1887 aimed to break up tribal lands into individual allotments, promoting assimilation and opening "surplus" lands to non-Native settlement

Key Treaties and Agreements

• Treaties were the primary means of establishing relationships between the U.S. government and Native American tribes in the 18th and early 19th centuries
• The Treaty of Hopewell (1785) established peace and friendship between the U.S. and the Cherokee Nation
• The Treaty of Greenville (1795) ceded large portions of Native American land in the Ohio Valley to the U.S. following the Northwest Indian War
• The Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851) recognized Native American territories and established peace between the U.S. and various Plains tribes
  • The treaty was broken by the U.S. government within a decade, leading to further conflict
• The Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867) established reservations for the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache tribes in present-day Oklahoma
• The Treaty of Fort Sumner (1868) ended the Navajo Long Walk and established the Navajo Reservation in present-day Arizona and New Mexico
• The Agreement with the Sioux of Various Tribes (1877) and the Agreement with the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Arapaho (1877) forced the cession of the Black Hills to the U.S. government

Reservation System Establishment

• The reservation system was created to confine Native American tribes to designated areas, often far from their traditional homelands
• Reservations were established through treaties, executive orders, and congressional acts
• The first Native American reservation was established for the Yakama Nation in 1855 in present-day Washington State
• Reservations were often located on marginal lands with limited resources, making it difficult for tribes to maintain traditional ways of life
• The U.S. government used the reservation system to assert control over Native American populations and facilitate assimilation policies
  • Native American children were often sent to boarding schools, where they were forced to abandon their language, culture, and religion
• The General Allotment Act (Dawes Act) of 1887 divided reservation lands into individual allotments, with the goal of promoting private land ownership and assimilation
  • "Surplus" lands were opened to non-Native settlement, resulting in significant land loss for Native American tribes

Impact on Native American Communities

• The establishment of reservations and the forced relocation of Native American tribes had devastating impacts on their communities
• Traditional ways of life, including hunting, gathering, and agriculture, were disrupted by the confinement to limited reservation lands
• The loss of land and resources led to widespread poverty, malnutrition, and disease among Native American populations
• The breakup of tribal lands through the Dawes Act undermined traditional social structures and communal land ownership
• Forced assimilation policies, such as the prohibition of Native American languages and religious practices, contributed to the erosion of cultural identities
• The boarding school system separated children from their families and communities, causing intergenerational trauma and loss of cultural knowledge
  • Physical, emotional, and sexual abuse were common in boarding schools, leading to long-lasting psychological impacts

Cultural and Social Consequences

• The reservation system and assimilation policies had far-reaching cultural and social consequences for Native American communities
• Traditional religious practices, ceremonies, and languages were suppressed or lost due to forced assimilation and the breakup of tribal communities
• The loss of land and resources disrupted traditional gender roles and social structures, as men were often unable to fulfill their roles as providers and protectors
• The boarding school system contributed to the erosion of family bonds and the transmission of cultural knowledge across generations
• The trauma experienced by Native American communities has led to ongoing struggles with mental health, substance abuse, and social dysfunction
• Despite these challenges, many Native American communities have worked to preserve and revitalize their cultural traditions, languages, and identities
  • Cultural revival movements, such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) in the 1960s and 1970s, have sought to promote Native American rights and cultural pride

Land and Resource Disputes

• The establishment of reservations and the forced cession of Native American lands have led to ongoing disputes over land and resource rights
• Many reservations were established on marginal lands with limited access to water, mineral resources, and other valuable assets
• The discovery of valuable resources, such as gold in the Black Hills and oil on the Navajo Reservation, has led to conflicts between Native American tribes and non-Native interests
• The construction of dams, pipelines, and other infrastructure projects has often infringed upon Native American land and water rights
  • The Dakota Access Pipeline controversy highlighted the ongoing struggle for Native American sovereignty and environmental justice
• Native American tribes have used legal challenges and advocacy to assert their rights to land and resources, with varying degrees of success
  • The U.S. Supreme Court's decision in McGirt v. Oklahoma (2020) affirmed the Muscogee (Creek) Nation's jurisdiction over its historical reservation lands

Modern Treaty Rights and Sovereignty

• Native American tribes are recognized as sovereign nations within the United States, with the right to self-governance and self-determination
• Modern treaty rights include access to natural resources, hunting and fishing rights, and the protection of sacred sites and cultural resources
• The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 affirmed the right of Native American tribes to manage their own affairs and provided for the transfer of federal programs to tribal control
• The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 established the framework for Native American tribes to operate gaming facilities on reservation lands, providing a source of revenue for many communities
• Native American tribes have used their sovereign status to assert their rights and protect their interests in areas such as environmental regulation, taxation, and law enforcement
  • The Navajo Nation, for example, has established its own environmental protection agency and has taken steps to regulate air and water quality on the reservation

Legacy and Contemporary Issues

• The legacy of Native American treaties and reservations continues to shape the experiences and challenges faced by Native American communities today
• Many Native American tribes continue to struggle with poverty, unemployment, and limited access to healthcare, education, and other essential services
• The intergenerational trauma resulting from the boarding school system, forced relocation, and other assimilation policies has contributed to ongoing mental health and social challenges
• Native American communities face disproportionate rates of violence, including high rates of missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls
• Environmental degradation, climate change, and the exploitation of natural resources pose ongoing threats to Native American lands and ways of life
• Despite these challenges, Native American communities have demonstrated resilience and a commitment to preserving their cultural identities and asserting their rights as sovereign nations
  • The revitalization of Native American languages, the protection of sacred sites, and the development of culturally responsive education programs are examples of ongoing efforts to promote cultural continuity and self-determination