10.3 Federal Indian policy and the push for assimilation
9 min read•july 30, 2024
Federal Indian policy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries aimed to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society. The government implemented various strategies, including the and boarding schools, to break up tribal lands and eradicate traditional cultures.
These policies had devastating effects on Native American communities, eroding languages, disrupting religious practices, and fragmenting social structures. Despite these challenges, many Native Americans resisted assimilation through various means, preserving their cultural heritage and fighting for their rights.
Federal Indian Policy in the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries
The Dawes Act and Its Impact on Tribal Lands
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The Dawes Act of 1887, also known as the General Allotment Act, aimed to break up tribal lands into individual allotments
Encouraged Native Americans to adopt Western-style farming and land ownership
Sought to promote individualism and private property ownership among Native American communities
Led to the fragmentation of tribal lands and undermined traditional communal land ownership practices
Resulted in the loss of millions of acres of tribal lands through the allotment process and subsequent sales to non-Native buyers
Assimilation Through Education and Cultural Suppression
The establishment of off-reservation boarding schools, such as the , sought to educate Native American children in Western culture, language, and values
Children were removed from their families and communities to attend these schools
Students were prohibited from speaking their native languages or practicing their cultural traditions
The goal was to "civilize" Native American children and eradicate their traditional identities
The suppression of Native American religious practices and ceremonies through various policies and regulations, including the in 1883
Traditional religious practices and ceremonies were banned or heavily restricted
The aim was to force Native Americans to abandon their spiritual beliefs and adopt Christianity
The suppression of these practices disrupted the transmission of cultural knowledge and spiritual traditions across generations
Encouraging Assimilation Through Citizenship and the Outing System
The granting of U.S. citizenship to Native Americans who accepted allotments or served in the military, as a means of encouraging assimilation
Citizenship was used as an incentive for Native Americans to embrace Western values and practices
Those who accepted allotments under the Dawes Act or served in the U.S. military were granted citizenship
This policy aimed to further integrate Native Americans into mainstream American society
The implementation of the "," which placed Native American children in non-Native households to learn domestic skills and assimilate into mainstream society
Native American children were sent to live with non-Native families during the summers or for extended periods
The goal was to expose them to Western domestic practices and further distance them from their traditional communities
This system contributed to the erosion of family bonds and cultural ties among Native American youth
Assimilation Policies: Goals and Methods
Eradicating Native American Culture and Identity
The primary goal of assimilation policies was to eradicate Native American culture and identity, forcing them to adopt Western customs, language, and beliefs
The U.S. government viewed Native American cultures as inferior and believed that assimilation was necessary for their "progress" and "civilization"
Assimilation policies aimed to strip away traditional Native American ways of life and replace them with Western norms and values
The ultimate objective was to eliminate the need for separate tribal identities and reservations, fully integrating Native Americans into mainstream society
Targeting Native American Children Through Education
Assimilation policies targeted Native American children, removing them from their families and communities to attend boarding schools where they were prohibited from speaking their native languages or practicing their cultural traditions
Boarding schools, such as the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, were established to indoctrinate Native American children with Western education and values
Children were forced to cut their hair, wear Western clothing, and adopt English names, erasing their traditional identities
The use of native languages was strictly forbidden, and children faced severe punishments for speaking their mother tongues
The curriculum focused on teaching Western subjects, such as English, mathematics, and vocational skills, while neglecting or denigrating Native American knowledge and traditions
Breaking Up Tribal Structures and Promoting Individualism
Assimilation policies aimed to break up tribal structures and communal land ownership, promoting individualism and private property ownership
The Dawes Act of 1887 allotted tribal lands to individual Native Americans, seeking to dissolve communal land ownership and encourage Western-style farming and land management
By breaking up tribal lands and promoting individual land ownership, the U.S. government hoped to weaken tribal cohesion and authority
The emphasis on individualism and private property was intended to undermine traditional Native American values of communalism and shared resources
Imposing Western Religion and Agricultural Practices
The government sought to "civilize" Native Americans by introducing Western education, Christianity, and agricultural practices
Missionaries and religious organizations were encouraged to establish schools and churches on reservations to convert Native Americans to Christianity
Native American spiritual practices and beliefs were dismissed as "paganism" or "superstition," and traditional religious leaders were often targeted for suppression
Agricultural programs and policies were implemented to encourage Native Americans to adopt Western farming techniques and crops, moving away from traditional subsistence practices
The introduction of Western agriculture was seen as a means of "civilizing" Native Americans and making them more self-sufficient, in line with American ideals of individualism and productivity
Impact of Assimilation on Native American Culture
Erosion of Native American Languages
Assimilation policies led to the erosion of Native American languages, as children were punished for speaking their native tongues in boarding schools
The strict prohibition of native languages in boarding schools had a devastating impact on language preservation and transmission
Many Native American children lost fluency in their native languages after years of being forced to speak only English
The loss of language proficiency made it difficult for younger generations to communicate with elders and access traditional knowledge and stories
The decline of native language speakers threatened the survival of many Indigenous languages and the rich cultural heritage they carried
Disruption of Traditional Religious Practices and Cultural Knowledge
The suppression of traditional religious practices and ceremonies disrupted the transmission of cultural knowledge and spiritual beliefs across generations
The ban on Native American religious practices and ceremonies, enforced through policies like the Code of Indian Offenses, prevented the open observance of sacred rituals and traditions
Without the ability to freely practice their religions, Native American communities struggled to maintain and pass on spiritual knowledge and values to younger generations
The disruption of religious practices severed the connection between Native American people and their ancestral lands, sacred sites, and spiritual identities
The loss of cultural knowledge and spiritual traditions weakened the social fabric of Native American communities and their sense of collective identity
Fragmentation of Native American Communities and Social Structures
The breakup of tribal lands through allotment fragmented Native American communities and undermined traditional social structures and kinship networks
The Dawes Act's allotment policy divided communally held tribal lands into individual parcels, disrupting the traditional land-based social organization of many Native American tribes
The fragmentation of land ownership made it difficult for extended families and clans to maintain their close-knit relationships and shared resources
The dispersal of Native American families across allotted lands weakened community bonds and the ability to maintain cultural practices and traditions collectively
The erosion of traditional social structures left many Native American individuals and families isolated and vulnerable, lacking the support networks that had sustained their communities for generations
Loss of Identity and Intergenerational Trauma
Many Native Americans experienced a loss of identity and sense of belonging, as they were forced to navigate between their traditional culture and the imposed Western culture
The pressure to assimilate and the denigration of Native American cultures led many individuals to feel ashamed of their heritage and disconnect from their tribal identities
The trauma experienced by Native American children in boarding schools, including physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, has had lasting intergenerational effects on mental health and family dynamics
The separation of children from their families and communities created a cycle of trauma that has been passed down through generations, manifesting in higher rates of substance abuse, domestic violence, and mental health issues
The loss of cultural identity and the ongoing impact of historical trauma continue to affect Native American communities today, as they work to heal and reclaim their cultural heritage
Native American Resistance to Assimilation
Family Resistance and Preservation of Culture
Some Native American families resisted sending their children to boarding schools, hiding them or moving to remote areas to avoid government agents
Many families recognized the threat that boarding schools posed to their children's cultural identity and well-being and took steps to protect them
Parents and grandparents would hide children when government agents came to take them to boarding schools, or move their families to remote locations where they were less likely to be found
Some families also secretly taught their children traditional languages, stories, and skills at home, to counteract the assimilationist teachings of the boarding schools
Native American communities adapted to changing circumstances by selectively adopting aspects of Western culture while maintaining core elements of their own traditions
Many Native American communities found ways to incorporate useful elements of Western technology and knowledge into their lives, while preserving the essential values and practices of their cultures
For example, some tribes adopted Western agricultural techniques or used modern materials in traditional crafts, demonstrating resilience and adaptability in the face of change
The survival of Native American languages, art forms, and cultural practices demonstrates the resilience of these communities in the face of assimilation efforts
Student Resistance and Leadership
Native American students in boarding schools often engaged in subtle forms of resistance, such as secretly speaking their native languages or maintaining cultural practices in private
Despite the strict rules and punishments, many students found ways to resist assimilation and maintain their cultural identities within the boarding school environment
Students would secretly speak their native languages with each other, share traditional stories and knowledge, and practice cultural rituals away from the watchful eyes of school authorities
Some students also used their education to become leaders and advocates for their communities, challenging assimilation policies and fighting for Native American rights
Many Native American leaders and activists, such as and , used their Western education to advocate for Native American rights and challenge assimilation policies
Zitkala-Sa (Yankton Dakota) attended boarding schools and later became a writer, educator, and activist, using her platform to criticize the assimilation policies and advocate for Native American cultural preservation
Carlos Montezuma (Yavapai) was a physician and activist who fought against the reservation system and argued for Native American citizenship and self-determination
These leaders and many others used their Western education and skills to become powerful voices for their communities, challenging the very system that sought to erase their identities
Spiritual and Political Resistance Movements
The movement of the late 19th century represented a spiritual and political form of resistance, as Native Americans sought to revitalize their traditional beliefs and resist the encroachment of Western culture
The Ghost Dance, which spread among many Native American tribes in the late 1880s, was a spiritual movement that prophesied the return of ancestral spirits, the restoration of traditional ways of life, and the removal of white settlers from Native lands
The movement was a response to the devastating impact of assimilation policies and the loss of land, culture, and autonomy experienced by Native American communities
The U.S. government viewed the Ghost Dance as a threat to its control and assimilation efforts, leading to increased military presence on reservations and the tragic massacre at in 1890
The pan-Indian movement of the early 20th century brought together Native Americans from different tribes to advocate for their rights and resist further assimilation policies
The pan-Indian movement emerged as a response to the shared experiences of oppression and cultural loss faced by Native American communities across the country
Organizations like the Society of American Indians (SAI) and the National Council of American Indians (NCAI) brought together Native American leaders and activists from various tribes to advocate for their rights and resist further assimilation efforts
These organizations fought for issues such as improved education, healthcare, and land rights for Native American communities, and worked to preserve and promote Native American cultures and identities in the face of ongoing assimilation pressures
Key Terms to Review (20)
American Indian Movement: The American Indian Movement (AIM) is an advocacy group that was founded in the late 1960s to address issues of sovereignty, treaty rights, and social justice for Native Americans in the United States. AIM emerged as a response to the systemic injustices faced by Native communities, particularly concerning federal Indian policies that aimed at assimilation and termination.
Boarding school era: The boarding school era refers to a period in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when the U.S. government established off-reservation boarding schools aimed at assimilating Native American children into Euro-American culture. These institutions were part of a broader federal policy designed to erase Indigenous identities and languages by removing children from their families and communities, ultimately leading to a significant loss of cultural heritage.
Bureau of Indian Affairs: The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) is a U.S. government agency established in 1824 that manages relations between the federal government and Native American tribes. Its mission has evolved over time, impacting federal Indian policy, economic development initiatives, and the social conditions of Native American communities throughout history.
Carlisle Indian Industrial School: The Carlisle Indian Industrial School was the first federally funded boarding school for Native American students, established in 1879 in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. It aimed to assimilate Native American children into Euro-American culture through education and vocational training, reflecting broader U.S. policies toward Native Americans during this period.
Carlos Montezuma: Carlos Montezuma was a prominent Native American physician, activist, and advocate for the rights of Indigenous peoples in the early 20th century. His work challenged assimilation policies and promoted the idea of self-determination among Native Americans, making him a key figure in the fight against oppressive federal Indian policies.
Code of Indian Offenses: The Code of Indian Offenses, established in 1883, was a set of regulations imposed by the U.S. government to control and regulate the behavior of Native Americans on reservations. It aimed to suppress traditional practices, enforce U.S. laws, and promote assimilation into Euro-American culture by criminalizing cultural and spiritual expressions that were deemed incompatible with Western values.
Cultural assimilation: Cultural assimilation is the process through which individuals or groups from one culture adopt the customs, values, and practices of another culture, often resulting in a loss of their original cultural identity. This term is crucial in understanding the interactions between indigenous peoples and colonial powers, as it often reflects the broader dynamics of power, resistance, and identity change.
Dawes Act: The Dawes Act, enacted in 1887, aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting individual plots of land to tribal members and breaking up communal tribal land. This act marked a significant shift in U.S. policy towards Native Americans, prioritizing land ownership and farming over traditional communal living and cultural practices.
Disenrollment: Disenrollment refers to the process by which individuals are removed from tribal membership, often as a result of federal policies aimed at assimilating Native Americans into mainstream society. This removal can strip individuals of their rights, cultural identity, and access to resources and benefits associated with being part of a tribe, reflecting the broader impact of federal Indian policy and the push for assimilation during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Forced relocation: Forced relocation refers to the involuntary movement of individuals or groups from their homelands to new areas, often imposed by governmental or military authorities. This practice has significantly impacted Native American tribes in the Southwest, leading to the loss of ancestral lands, cultural disintegration, and social upheaval.
Ghost Dance: The Ghost Dance was a spiritual movement among Native American tribes, primarily in the late 19th century, that sought to restore traditional ways of life and bring about a renewal of the native culture. This movement emerged during a time of intense pressure from U.S. federal policies aimed at assimilation and the loss of tribal lands, aiming to unite Native Americans in hope for a better future through the performance of ceremonial dances that were believed to invoke ancestors and resurrect the buffalo herds.
Land allotment: Land allotment refers to the policy of distributing individual plots of land to Native Americans, aimed at breaking up communal landholdings and promoting individual ownership. This concept played a significant role in U.S. expansionist policies, particularly in the context of assimilating Native Americans into mainstream American society and altering their traditional ways of life.
Outing system: The outing system was a policy implemented in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, aimed at assimilating Native American children by placing them in white families or boarding schools to be raised and educated outside their tribal communities. This system was part of a larger federal Indian policy focused on eradicating Indigenous cultures and integrating Native Americans into mainstream American society. The outing system sought to remove children from their cultural roots, promoting Western values and lifestyles at the expense of Native traditions.
Pan-indianism: Pan-Indianism is a socio-political movement that seeks to unite various Native American tribes and peoples across the United States and Canada, emphasizing shared cultural and political goals rather than tribal differences. This movement emerged as a response to historical injustices and federal policies aimed at assimilation, fostering a collective identity among Native Americans that transcends individual tribal affiliations.
Treaty of Fort Laramie: The Treaty of Fort Laramie, signed in 1851, was an agreement between the United States and several Native American tribes to establish peace and define territorial boundaries in the Great Plains region. This treaty marked a significant moment in the U.S. government's approach to Native American relations, reflecting both the desire for westward expansion and the conflicting interests of various tribes in the face of increasing American settlement.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February 2, 1848, marking the end of the Mexican-American War and resulting in Mexico ceding a significant portion of its northern territory to the United States. This treaty not only redefined the geographical and political boundaries of the American Southwest but also had lasting impacts on the indigenous groups living in these newly acquired lands.
United States v. Kagama: United States v. Kagama is a landmark Supreme Court case from 1886 that addressed the legal authority of the federal government over Native American tribes, particularly regarding criminal jurisdiction. The ruling established that Congress has broad powers to legislate in matters affecting Indian affairs and affirmed the federal government’s authority over tribal sovereignty, which ties directly into the ongoing themes of assimilation policies, the reservation system, and the legal status of tribes in the U.S.
Worcester v. Georgia: Worcester v. Georgia was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1832 that ruled the state of Georgia could not impose its laws on Native American lands, recognizing their sovereignty. This case is crucial as it affirmed the legal standing of Native American nations, emphasizing the federal government's authority over state governments regarding Indian affairs and highlighting the tensions surrounding federal Indian policy and the assimilation efforts during this period.
Wounded Knee: Wounded Knee refers to the site of two significant events in U.S. history involving Native Americans: the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890 and the Wounded Knee Occupation in 1973. The massacre marked a tragic end to the Indian Wars, where U.S. troops killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux, while the occupation was a pivotal moment in the Red Power movement, where activists protested against government policies and sought recognition of Native rights.
Zitkala-sa: Zitkala-Sa, also known as Gertrude Simmons Bonnin, was a prominent Native American writer, musician, and political activist in the early 20th century. She played a crucial role in advocating for Native American rights and promoting cultural understanding through her writings and speeches, which highlighted the struggles of Indigenous peoples in the face of assimilation policies.