10.5 String instruments

Renaissance string instruments played a pivotal role in shaping musical expression. From the soft, intimate tones of viols to the versatile lute, these instruments reflected the period's emphasis on harmony and polyphony, laying the foundation for future ensembles.

The development of bowed, plucked, and struck string instruments expanded the range of musical possibilities. Craftsmen refined their techniques, carefully selecting materials and incorporating decorative elements, while musicians developed sophisticated playing methods that influenced future generations.

Types of Renaissance strings

• String instruments played a crucial role in Renaissance music, reflecting the period's emphasis on harmony and polyphony
• The development of various string types allowed for a wider range of musical expression and tonal colors
• Renaissance string instruments laid the foundation for many modern orchestral and chamber music ensembles

Bowed string instruments

• Viols dominated the bowed string family during the Renaissance
• Included instruments of different sizes (bass, tenor, alto, treble) to cover a wide pitch range
• Characterized by their flat backs, sloping shoulders, and fretted fingerboards
• Typically had six or seven strings tuned in fourths with a third in the middle
• Produced a soft, mellow tone ideal for consort playing and accompaniment

Plucked string instruments

• Lutes reigned supreme among plucked instruments in Renaissance music
• Featured a pear-shaped body, a bent-back pegbox, and multiple courses of strings
• Evolved from the medieval oud, gaining more strings and a wider range over time
• Other plucked instruments included the cittern, gittern, and early forms of the guitar
• Played with fingers or a plectrum, depending on the musical style and tradition

Struck string instruments

• Hammered dulcimer gained popularity during the Renaissance
• Consisted of a trapezoidal soundbox with strings stretched across its surface
• Played by striking the strings with small hammers or mallets
• Psaltery, a precursor to the dulcimer, was also used but gradually declined in popularity
• These instruments contributed unique timbres to Renaissance ensembles and solo performances

Construction and materials

• Renaissance instrument makers refined their craft, developing techniques that influenced modern luthiery
• The choice of materials and construction methods significantly impacted an instrument's sound and durability
• Instrument making became a highly specialized profession during this period

Wood selection and treatment

• Makers carefully chose woods based on their acoustic properties and availability
• Spruce or pine commonly used for soundboards due to their resonant qualities
• Hardwoods like maple, walnut, or fruit woods preferred for backs and sides
• Wood often aged and seasoned for years before use to enhance stability and tone
• Thin, precisely carved wood allowed for optimal vibration and sound projection

String materials

• Gut strings, made from sheep intestines, were the primary material for most instruments
• Different thicknesses and tensions of gut strings produced varying tonal qualities
• Metal strings (brass or iron) occasionally used, especially on struck string instruments
• Silk strings sometimes employed for higher registers or specific tonal effects
• String making became a specialized craft, with makers developing secret techniques

Decorative elements

• Instruments often adorned with intricate inlays, carvings, or painted designs
• Precious materials like ivory, mother-of-pearl, or exotic woods used for ornamentation
• Rosettes (decorative soundhole covers) on lutes featured complex geometric patterns
• Purfling (decorative edging) added to protect instrument edges and enhance aesthetics
• Instrument decoration reflected the status of the owner and the importance of music in society

Playing techniques

• Renaissance musicians developed sophisticated playing techniques to maximize expressivity
• These techniques laid the groundwork for many modern string performance practices
• Treatises and instructional materials from the period provide insights into historical techniques

Bowing methods

• Underhand bow grip common for viol players, allowing for subtle dynamic control
• Overhand bow grip gradually adopted by violin family players for more power and projection
• Bow strokes varied from long, sustained notes to quick, articulated passages
• Sul ponticello (bowing near the bridge) and sul tasto (bowing over the fingerboard) used for timbral variety
• Tremolo and other ornamental bow techniques employed for expressive effects

Plucking styles

• Thumb-index finger alternation technique developed for fast passages on the lute
• Right-hand fingers assigned to specific courses of strings for consistent tone production
• Rasgueado (strumming) technique used in early guitar music and some lute styles
• Pizzicato playing on bowed instruments occasionally employed for special effects
• Plucking near the bridge (ponticello) or over the fingerboard for tonal variation

Fingering patterns

• Left-hand fingering patterns on fretted instruments influenced by the instrument's tuning
• Barré technique (using one finger to press multiple strings) essential for complex chords
• Position playing on bowed instruments allowed for extended range and varied timbres
• Ornaments like trills, mordents, and turns executed with precise left-hand finger movements
• Double-stops and chords on bowed instruments required careful finger placement and bow control

Notable Renaissance string instruments

• The Renaissance saw the development and refinement of many string instruments
• These instruments formed the basis for various ensemble types and solo repertoire
• Many Renaissance instruments influenced or evolved into their modern counterparts

Viol family

• Consisted of instruments in various sizes (pardessus, treble, tenor, bass, and great bass)
• Characterized by their flat backs, sloping shoulders, and typically six or seven strings
• Fretted fingerboards allowed for precise intonation and facilitated complex polyphony
• Played with an underhand bow grip, producing a soft, intimate tone
• Ideal for consort music, with each size covering a specific vocal range

Lute and its variants

• Standard Renaissance lute featured 6 to 8 courses of strings (pairs or singles)
• Evolved to include more courses, reaching up to 13 in the late Renaissance
• Theorbo, a large bass lute with extended neck, developed for continuo playing
• Mandora, a smaller lute-like instrument, popular for solo and ensemble music
• Chitarrone, similar to the theorbo, used in early Baroque opera and chamber music

Early violin family

• Emerged in the late Renaissance, gradually replacing viols in some contexts
• Included the violin, viola, and cello (originally called the bass violin)
• Characterized by their curved bodies, f-shaped sound holes, and four strings
• Played with an overhand bow grip, producing a brighter, more projecting tone
• Gained popularity in dance music and gradually in art music towards the end of the period

Role in Renaissance music

• String instruments played a central role in the diverse musical landscape of the Renaissance
• Their versatility allowed them to be used in various settings and genres
• The development of string instruments paralleled the evolution of musical styles and forms

Court and chamber music

• Viol consorts became popular in aristocratic settings for intimate chamber performances
• Lute songs (accompanied by solo lute) were a favored genre in courtly entertainment
• Mixed consorts combining different string instruments with winds created rich textures
• Dance music often featured string instruments, especially in court balls and festivities
• Solo virtuoso performances on lute or viol impressed noble patrons and audiences

Sacred music applications

• Viols and lutes used to accompany or double vocal lines in sacred polyphony
• String ensembles sometimes substituted for voices in liturgical music performance
• Plucked strings like psaltery or harp used in some religious contexts for their symbolic associations
• Bowed strings gradually introduced into church music, especially in Italian sacred concertos
• Instrumental versions of vocal sacred music (intabulations) played on lute or viol consort

Folk and popular music

• Fiddles and rebecs (ancestors of the violin) widely used in folk dance music
• Gittern and early forms of guitar popular in informal settings and street performances
• Cittern favored for its loud, bright tone in taverns and outdoor gatherings
• Hurdy-gurdy, though medieval in origin, continued to be used in folk contexts
• Simple plucked instruments like mandora used for accompanying popular songs

Influential composers and performers

• Many Renaissance musicians specialized in specific string instruments, advancing technique and repertoire
• Composer-performers often wrote idiomatically for their instruments, showcasing their capabilities
• The rise of virtuoso performers contributed to the development of solo instrumental music

Lute virtuosos

• Francesco da Milano, known as "Il Divino," composed intricate lute fantasias and intabulations
• John Dowland, English lutenist and composer, famous for his melancholic songs and solo lute works
• Vincenzo Galilei (father of Galileo) wrote influential treatises on lute playing and music theory
• Simone Molinaro published important collections of lute music, including works by other composers
• Diana Poulton, though not from the Renaissance, was a key 20th-century figure in reviving lute music

Viol consort composers

• William Byrd composed numerous works for viol consort, blending sacred and secular styles
• Orlando Gibbons wrote intricate fantasias and In Nomines for viol consorts
• John Jenkins, a prolific composer, wrote over 800 pieces for various viol consort combinations
• Alfonso Ferrabosco II introduced Italian influences to English viol consort music
• Christopher Tye composed notable In Nomines and other works for viol ensemble

Early violin family pioneers

• Giovanni Gabrieli included violins in his innovative polychoral works in Venice
• Biagio Marini wrote some of the earliest known solo violin sonatas
• Carlo Farina explored extended techniques for the violin in his "Capriccio Stravagante"
• Salamone Rossi, a Jewish-Italian composer, wrote trio sonatas featuring violins
• Thomas Baltzar, a German violinist, impressed English audiences with his advanced technique

Evolution from medieval instruments

• The transition from medieval to Renaissance instruments was gradual and varied by region
• Innovations in instrument making reflected changing musical tastes and performance practices
• Many Renaissance instruments retained features of their medieval predecessors while incorporating new elements

Refinements in design

• Lute evolved from the oud, gaining more strings and a bent-back pegbox
• Viol family developed from various medieval bowed instruments, standardizing in size and shape
• Early violins emerged as a refinement of medieval fiddles, with a more defined body shape
• Soundboards became thinner and more responsive, allowing for greater tonal nuance
• Bridge designs evolved to better transmit string vibrations to the instrument body

Expansion of range

• Additional strings or courses added to many instruments, extending their pitch range
• Lutes progressed from 4-5 courses in the early Renaissance to 10 or more by the late 16th century
• Viol family expanded to include instruments of various sizes, covering a wide vocal-like range
• Fretted fingerboards on some instruments allowed for more precise pitch control
• Development of larger instruments (bass viol, theorbo) extended the lower range capabilities

Improvements in playability

• Refinements in neck shape and string height made instruments more comfortable to play
• Standardization of tunings within instrument families facilitated ensemble playing
• Introduction of tied gut frets on lutes and viols allowed for easier adjustment and replacement
• Bow designs evolved, with longer bows allowing for sustained notes and varied articulations
• Development of specialized playing techniques (thumb-under lute technique) increased virtuosity

Symbolism and iconography

• String instruments held significant symbolic meaning in Renaissance culture
• Their depiction in art and literature reflected societal values and musical practices
• The choice of instrument often conveyed specific messages about character or setting

Depictions in Renaissance art

• Lutes frequently appeared in vanitas paintings, symbolizing the transience of earthly pleasures
• Angels often portrayed playing viols or lutes in religious paintings, representing heavenly harmony
• Still life paintings featuring musical instruments highlighted the importance of music in cultured society
• Outdoor scenes with shepherds often included rustic string instruments like rebecs or simple lutes
• Portraits of nobles with lutes or viols emphasized their refined tastes and education

Literary references

• Shakespeare used lute metaphors in his plays, often relating to harmony or discord in relationships
• Pastoral poetry frequently mentioned string instruments played by shepherds or nymphs
• Allegorical works used musical instruments to represent various virtues or human qualities
• Treatises on courtly behavior (Castiglione's "The Book of the Courtier") emphasized the importance of musical skill
• Religious texts sometimes used string instrument imagery to describe heavenly music or divine harmony

Social status associations

• Lute playing considered an essential skill for courtiers and educated individuals
• Viol consorts associated with refined chamber music in aristocratic settings
• Simpler string instruments like gitterns or fiddles connected with lower classes or rural life
• Highly decorated instruments served as status symbols for wealthy patrons
• Professional musicians often specialized in specific instruments, gaining renown and patronage

Regional variations

• Different regions in Europe developed distinct traditions in string instrument making and playing
• Cultural exchange and trade led to the spread and adaptation of instruments across borders
• Regional preferences influenced the development of local musical styles and instrument designs

Italian string traditions

• Cremona emerged as a center for violin making, with families like Amati pioneering techniques
• Venetian schools developed ornate decoration styles for lutes and other string instruments
• Roman and Neapolitan traditions favored the theorbo for continuo playing in early opera
• Lira da braccio, a bowed instrument held on the arm, remained popular in Italian courts
• Italian makers experimented with new string instrument designs, influencing other European traditions

French string innovations

• Air de cour, a genre of lute songs, flourished in French courts
• Developed unique lute playing techniques, including style brisé (broken style)
• French viol players favored a lighter, more agile playing style compared to other regions
• Introduced the pardessus de viole, a small viol used for playing violin repertoire
• Nicolas Hotman and other French composers advanced the solo viol repertoire

English consort practices

• Viol consort music reached its peak in England, with composers like William Lawes and John Jenkins
• Developed the chest of viols, a matched set of instruments for consort playing
• Lute songs (especially those by John Dowland) became a distinctive English genre
• Mixed consorts combining winds and strings gained popularity in Elizabethan court music
• English makers like Thomas Mace contributed to lute design and maintenance practices

Legacy and influence

• Renaissance string instruments and practices significantly shaped the development of Western music
• Many techniques and design elements persisted into later periods, influencing modern instrument making
• The revival of early music in the 20th century renewed interest in Renaissance string instruments

Impact on Baroque instruments

• Violin family instruments developed during the Renaissance became central to Baroque orchestras
• Lute techniques influenced the development of Baroque guitar and theorbo playing styles
• Viol da gamba continued to be used in Baroque music, especially in France
• Basso continuo practice, often realized on lute or theorbo, evolved from Renaissance accompaniment techniques
• Baroque composers like Bach wrote for Renaissance instruments (lute) alongside newer ones

Modern reproductions

• Luthiers specializing in historical instruments create accurate reproductions of Renaissance string instruments
• Modern materials sometimes used to enhance durability while maintaining historical accuracy
• Advanced research in iconography and surviving instruments informs contemporary reproductions
• Adjustments sometimes made to accommodate modern playing techniques or concert venues
• Reproduction instruments allow for authentic performances of Renaissance music on period-appropriate instruments

Historical performance practice

• Early music revival movement emphasizes historically informed performance on period instruments
• Research into Renaissance treatises and iconography informs modern playing techniques
• Ensembles specializing in Renaissance music often use reproductions of period string instruments
• Academic programs in historical performance train musicians in Renaissance playing styles
• Recording projects and concerts featuring Renaissance string instruments have increased public awareness and appreciation