16.2 Skepticism and the suspension of judgment
3 min read•august 9, 2024
challenged the possibility of certain knowledge, urging . Hellenistic skeptics like argued that conflicting evidence and opinions make definitive claims unjustifiable. They sought peace of mind through withholding assent to non-evident propositions.
Skeptics developed techniques to undermine knowledge claims, including arguments from and . They aimed to create between opposing views, showing neither could be proven. This approach influenced later philosophy and encouraged critical examination of assumptions.
Pyrrho and Pyrrhonian Skepticism
Pyrrho's Philosophy and Key Concepts
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- Pyrrho of Elis founded in ancient Greece around 300 BCE
- Emphasized suspending judgment about the true nature of reality
- Argued knowledge claims cannot be justified due to conflicting evidence and opinions
- Developed as a practice of withholding assent to any non-evident proposition
- Sought or peace of mind through suspension of judgment
- Believed equipollence or equal force of opposing arguments prevents conclusive knowledge
Practical Applications of Pyrrhonian Skepticism
- Advocated living according to appearances and customs without holding firm beliefs
- Encouraged questioning assumptions and critically examining claims to knowledge
- Aimed to achieve tranquility by avoiding dogmatic assertions about reality
- Influenced later philosophers like who systematized Pyrrhonian arguments
- Contrasted with which made some positive knowledge claims
Skeptical Concepts and Techniques
Core Skeptical Principles
- asserts human knowledge is impossible to attain with certainty
- Argues our senses and reasoning are fallible and cannot provide indubitable truths
- refer to modes of argument used by skeptics to undermine knowledge claims
- Include arguments from relativity, infinite regress, and conflicting expert opinions
- Suspension of judgment involves refraining from making definitive truth claims
- Aims to avoid dogmatism and remain open to new evidence and perspectives
Skeptical Argumentation Strategies
- Sought to create equipollence between opposing views to show neither can be proven
- Used to reveal contradictions in dogmatic positions
- Employed Socratic questioning to expose gaps in others' claimed knowledge
- Highlighted how shape beliefs and perceptions of truth
- Pointed out unreliability of sense perception (optical illusions)
- Noted how emotions and biases can distort reasoning and judgments
Schools of Skepticism
Academic Skepticism
- Developed at Plato's Academy in the Hellenistic period
- and were key figures who shaped Academic skepticism
- Argued knowledge is impossible but some beliefs are more reasonable than others
- Accepted probabilism allowing for practical decision-making based on likelihood
- Influenced Cicero and had significant impact on Roman philosophy and rhetoric
- Eventually declined as a distinct school but ideas persisted in various forms
Pyrrhonian Skepticism
- Founded by Pyrrho, later systematized by Aenesidemus and Sextus Empiricus
- Advocated complete suspension of judgment about all non-evident matters
- Rejected Academic skeptics' acceptance of probabilism as still too dogmatic
- Used skeptical arguments to achieve equipollence between opposing views
- Aimed for ataraxia through epoché rather than seeking probable knowledge
- Survived longer than Academic skepticism, influencing medieval and modern thought
Key Terms to Review (17)
Academic skepticism: Academic skepticism is a philosophical doctrine that emphasizes the suspension of judgment regarding knowledge claims, asserting that certainty is often unattainable. This approach encourages critical examination of beliefs and ideas, leading to a cautious stance towards accepting truths without sufficient evidence. By promoting the idea that one should refrain from making definitive claims, academic skepticism fosters an environment of inquiry and doubt, where individuals are encouraged to question the validity of their perceptions and conclusions.
Acatalepsia: Acatalepsia refers to the philosophical idea that knowledge is impossible, particularly in the context of skepticism. It suggests that one cannot achieve a complete understanding of the nature of reality or truth, leading to a suspension of judgment on any claims to knowledge. This concept highlights the limitations of human perception and reasoning, suggesting that certainty is unattainable and that beliefs should be held tentatively.
Arcesilaus: Arcesilaus was a prominent Greek philosopher and the head of the Academy in Athens around 265-241 BCE, known for his significant contributions to the development of skepticism. He redefined the philosophical landscape by advocating for the suspension of judgment, suggesting that one should withhold assent to any belief that could not be definitively proven, which marked a key shift in how knowledge and belief were understood in philosophy.
Ataraxia: Ataraxia is a state of serene calmness and emotional tranquility, often associated with freedom from distress or anxiety. This concept is central to various philosophical traditions, particularly in seeking peace of mind through rational thought and ethical living.
Carneades: Carneades was a prominent ancient Greek philosopher and one of the most significant figures in the development of Skepticism, particularly within the Academic Skeptic school. His ideas emphasized the importance of suspending judgment on beliefs and knowledge claims due to the inherent uncertainty and variability in human perception and reasoning.
Cultural differences: Cultural differences refer to the variations in beliefs, values, customs, and behaviors that exist between different groups of people. These differences can significantly influence how individuals perceive the world, interact with others, and make decisions, often leading to diverse perspectives and approaches to various issues.
Epoché: Epoché refers to the suspension of judgment or belief regarding the truth of particular propositions or claims. This practice is central to skepticism, allowing individuals to refrain from making absolute assertions about knowledge, thus promoting a state of neutrality and inquiry. By practicing epoché, one can reach a state of ataraxia, which is a serene peace of mind free from disturbance caused by conflicting beliefs or opinions.
Equipollence: Equipollence refers to the philosophical concept where two competing propositions or beliefs hold equal weight or justification, leading to a suspension of judgment about which is true. This idea is crucial in understanding skepticism, as it emphasizes the challenge of determining truth when equally convincing arguments exist. By acknowledging equipollence, individuals are encouraged to refrain from making definitive judgments when faced with conflicting evidence.
Infinite regress: Infinite regress refers to a situation in philosophical arguments where a proposed explanation or justification requires an endless chain of further justifications or explanations, leading to no ultimate foundation. This concept raises questions about the adequacy of certain theories and arguments, particularly concerning the need for foundational principles or entities that do not themselves require further justification. The challenge of infinite regress is particularly relevant when discussing theories that rely on external standards, as they must avoid falling into an endless loop of explanations.
Pyrrho: Pyrrho was an ancient Greek philosopher, often regarded as the founder of Skepticism, who emphasized the idea of suspending judgment on beliefs and perceptions. His teachings laid the groundwork for later philosophical inquiry into the nature of knowledge and certainty, advocating for a life free from dogmatic assertions. By encouraging doubt and the withholding of belief, Pyrrho's approach aimed to achieve tranquility and peace of mind amidst the uncertainties of life.
Pyrrhonian Skepticism: Pyrrhonian skepticism is a philosophical approach that advocates for the suspension of judgment regarding beliefs and claims, emphasizing the idea that for every argument, there exists an equal counterargument. This school of thought encourages individuals to refrain from making definitive assertions about knowledge or truth, promoting a lifestyle of inquiry and tranquility through the recognition of uncertainty.
Reductio ad absurdum: Reductio ad absurdum is a logical argument technique used to demonstrate the falsity of a proposition by showing that its acceptance leads to an absurd or contradictory conclusion. This method is significant because it allows one to challenge the validity of a claim by exposing the irrational outcomes that arise if the claim were true, often leading to the suspension of judgment regarding that claim.
Relativity: Relativity is the concept that suggests that the perception of truth or reality can vary depending on the individual's perspective and context. This idea challenges absolute notions of knowledge, emphasizing that understanding is often subjective and influenced by personal experience or cultural background, linking it to broader philosophical debates about skepticism and the nature of reality.
Sextus Empiricus: Sextus Empiricus was a prominent ancient Greek philosopher and physician, best known for his works on skepticism, particularly 'Outlines of Pyrrhonism' and 'Against the Mathematicians.' His writings outline the principles of skeptical philosophy, emphasizing the suspension of judgment on beliefs and the pursuit of tranquility through doubt and inquiry. Sextus's ideas are central to understanding how skepticism challenges dogmatic assertions of knowledge.
Skepticism: Skepticism is a philosophical approach that questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge, suggesting that humans can never fully know anything. It challenges the validity of beliefs and claims, promoting a method of inquiry that relies on doubt and suspension of judgment, which is crucial in various philosophical discussions regarding knowledge and truth.
Suspension of judgment: Suspension of judgment is a philosophical stance that entails refraining from making definitive conclusions about a belief or claim, particularly in the context of skepticism. This approach promotes an attitude of withholding assent, thereby allowing for open-minded inquiry and the exploration of various perspectives without committing to a specific viewpoint.
Tropes: Tropes are rhetorical devices or figurative expressions that convey meanings through the use of language in a non-literal way. They often serve to create connections and convey deeper ideas or emotions by altering the usual meanings of words, which can lead to new interpretations and insights in philosophical discussions.