9.4 Gender and sexuality in ancient warfare and conquest
5 min read•august 15, 2024
Ancient warfare and conquest profoundly shaped gender roles and sexuality in ancient societies. Men dominated military structures, with women typically relegated to supportive roles. However, exceptions existed, like and female military leaders.
War often reinforced traditional gender norms but could also lead to shifts in responsibilities and sexual attitudes. Sexual violence was used as a weapon, leaving lasting impacts on survivors and conquered populations. Gender influenced treatment of the conquered, with long-term effects on cultural practices and social structures.
Gender Roles in Ancient Warfare
Men as Primary Participants
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- In most ancient societies, men served as soldiers, generals, and military leaders
- Men were often the only ones allowed to participate in combat and warfare
- Societies such as ancient Greece and Rome had military structures that were almost entirely male-dominated
- Men's roles in warfare were closely tied to ideals of masculinity, strength, and courage (Spartan warriors, Roman legionaries)
Women's Limited and Supportive Roles
- Women's roles in ancient military structures were often limited or restricted
- In some cases, women played supportive roles such as providing medical care, preparing food and supplies, or serving as spies or messengers
- In Sparta, women underwent physical training to prepare them for their roles as mothers of strong warriors
- Spartan women were also tasked with managing households and estates while men were away at war
Exceptions to Traditional Gender Roles
- Some ancient societies, such as the Scythians and Sarmatians, had women who participated in combat alongside men
- These women warriors were often mythologized or exoticized by other cultures (Amazons)
- In some cases, women took on leadership roles in military campaigns or served as military strategists (, Queen of the Iceni)
- However, these examples were relatively rare and often viewed as exceptional or unusual in ancient societies
Warfare's Impact on Gender Norms
Reinforcement of Traditional Roles
- Warfare often led to the reinforcement of traditional gender roles, with men as protectors and warriors and women as caregivers and homemakers
- Wartime propaganda utilized gender stereotypes and ideals to mobilize populations and maintain morale ()
- Societies praised men for their bravery and sacrifice in battle while emphasizing women's roles in supporting the war effort from the home front
Shifts in Responsibilities and Norms
- In times of war, women often took on additional responsibilities, such as managing farms, businesses, and households in the absence of men
- The absence of men due to warfare could lead to shifts in sexual norms, such as an increase in same-sex relationships or changes in attitudes towards adultery
- In some cases, warfare led to the breakdown of traditional gender roles and the emergence of new social structures (Aristophanes' play Lysistrata depicts women going on a sex strike to end the Peloponnesian War)
- The aftermath of war could also bring about changes in gender norms, such as the increased economic and social independence of women in post-war societies (Women in ancient Sparta had more rights and freedoms compared to other Greek city-states)
Sexual Violence as a Weapon of War
Tactics of Terror and Humiliation
- Sexual violence, including rape, sexual slavery, and forced prostitution, was often used as a tactic to terrorize and demoralize enemy populations in ancient warfare
- The conquest of a city or territory was sometimes followed by the mass rape of women as a form of humiliation and assertion of power over the defeated population ( in Roman mythology)
- Sexual violence was used to demonstrate the victors' dominance and to shatter the social and moral fabric of the conquered society
Long-term Impact on Survivors
- The aftermath of sexual violence in warfare often led to social stigma, ostracism, and long-term trauma for survivors, particularly women
- Survivors of sexual violence faced challenges reintegrating into their communities and often struggled with the psychological and physical consequences of their experiences
- In some cases, the children born as a result of wartime rape faced discrimination and marginalization within their societies (The Trojan War hero was said to be the product of the rape of Auge by Heracles)
- The legacy of sexual violence in warfare could have lasting impacts on gender relations and power dynamics within ancient societies
Treatment of Conquered Populations by Gender
Differential Treatment Based on Gender
- Conquered populations were often subjected to different treatment based on their gender and sexuality
- Men of conquered populations were sometimes killed or enslaved, while women were more likely to be taken as captives, forced into marriage, or sexually assaulted (The )
- The treatment of conquered populations could also vary based on factors such as social class, ethnicity, and religious beliefs, with gender and sexuality intersecting with these other aspects of identity
Assimilation and Imposition of Norms
- In some cases, conquered populations were assimilated into the dominant society, with gender and sexual norms imposed upon them
- The conquering society might seek to erase or suppress the cultural practices and traditions of the conquered population, including those related to gender and sexuality
- Assimilation could involve the forced adoption of new gender roles, sexual practices, or marriage customs ()
- The process of assimilation could be met with resistance or adaptation by the conquered population, leading to the emergence of hybrid or syncretic gender and sexual norms
Long-term Impact of Conquest
- The long-term impact of conquest on gender and sexual norms could be significant, with the legacy of violence and trauma shaping social structures and cultural practices for generations
- Conquest could lead to the displacement or diaspora of conquered populations, disrupting traditional gender roles and family structures
- The integration of conquered populations into the dominant society could also bring about changes in gender and sexual norms over time (The influence of Greek culture on Roman society after the Roman conquest of Greece)
- The memory and commemoration of conquest could also shape gender and sexual ideologies, with the glorification of male warriors and the marginalization of female victims (The depiction of the Amazon queen at the hands of Achilles in Greek art and literature)
Key Terms to Review (24)
Alexander the Great's policy of encouraging his soldiers to marry Persian women: This policy was a strategic initiative by Alexander the Great to promote cultural integration and unity between his Macedonian forces and the Persian populace following his conquests. By encouraging his soldiers to marry Persian women, Alexander aimed to foster loyalty among his troops, blend cultures, and legitimize his rule over the newly acquired territories.
Amazon Warriors: Amazon Warriors were legendary female warriors of ancient mythology, often depicted as strong, independent women who lived apart from men and engaged in combat. These figures challenge traditional gender roles and portray a society where women could embody both martial prowess and leadership, highlighting the complexities of gender and sexuality in the context of ancient warfare and conquest.
Ancient texts on gender and battle: Ancient texts on gender and battle refer to literary and historical documents from ancient cultures that address the roles, perceptions, and representations of gender in the context of warfare. These texts often explore how masculinity and femininity were constructed during times of conflict, revealing societal norms, expectations, and the impact of war on gender identities. They serve as vital sources for understanding the interplay between gender dynamics and martial activities across different civilizations.
Artifacts related to female warriors: Artifacts related to female warriors are physical objects from ancient cultures that provide evidence of women's roles as fighters and warriors. These artifacts can include weapons, armor, burial goods, and artistic representations that highlight the contributions and presence of women in military contexts, challenging traditional gender norms surrounding warfare.
Boudicca: Boudicca was a queen of the Iceni tribe in ancient Britain who led a significant uprising against Roman rule around AD 60-61. Her resistance became a symbol of courage and defiance against imperial power, highlighting the role of women in ancient history and challenging traditional gender norms in the context of warfare and conquest.
Conscription of women: Conscription of women refers to the practice of drafting women into military service, typically during times of war or national emergency. This concept challenges traditional gender roles by recognizing women's capabilities as active participants in warfare, highlighting their roles not only as supporters but also as combatants and strategists. The conscription of women raises critical questions about gender equality, societal norms, and the intersection of gender and military service.
Displacement of gender roles: Displacement of gender roles refers to the shifting or redefinition of traditional roles assigned to different genders, often occurring in contexts where societal norms are challenged or disrupted. In the realm of ancient warfare and conquest, this concept highlights how the involvement of women in military activities or the reallocation of responsibilities within households could subvert existing power dynamics, leading to new understandings of gender identities and relationships during times of conflict.
Enslavement of Trojan women after the fall of Troy: The enslavement of Trojan women after the fall of Troy refers to the forced capture and subsequent subjugation of women from Troy by the victorious Greek forces during and after the Trojan War. This event highlights the brutal realities of warfare, where gendered violence often occurs, particularly against women who are seen as spoils of war. It also reflects the power dynamics in ancient societies, where women's bodies and autonomy were frequently exploited in the context of conquest.
Feminist historiography: Feminist historiography is an approach to writing history that emphasizes the role of women and gender in historical narratives, challenging traditional historiography that often marginalizes or overlooks female perspectives. It seeks to recover the experiences and contributions of women throughout history, while also analyzing how gender shapes societal structures and power dynamics. This approach is crucial for understanding notable women in ancient history and mythology as well as the intersections of gender and sexuality in contexts like warfare and conquest.
Gender-based violence in conflict: Gender-based violence in conflict refers to harmful acts directed at individuals based on their gender, which occur in the context of armed conflict. This form of violence is often used as a weapon of war to humiliate, dominate, and instill fear, particularly targeting women and girls, but also affecting men and boys. It encompasses a range of abuses, including sexual violence, exploitation, and trafficking, all of which can have devastating physical and psychological effects on victims and their communities.
Gendered violence: Gendered violence refers to harmful acts directed at individuals based on their gender, often manifesting in physical, sexual, or psychological harm. This type of violence is deeply rooted in societal norms and power dynamics that perpetuate inequalities, making it a significant concern during periods of warfare and conquest, where such acts are frequently used as tools of domination and control over conquered populations.
Hegemonic Masculinity: Hegemonic masculinity refers to the dominant form of masculinity that is culturally exalted in a given society, often associated with traits such as authority, aggression, and heterosexuality. This concept helps in understanding how certain masculine ideals are constructed and maintained, influencing social norms and behaviors regarding gender roles and power dynamics across various spheres, including labor, politics, and social relationships.
Honor-based violence: Honor-based violence refers to acts of violence, often committed within families or communities, intended to protect or restore perceived honor and reputation. This type of violence can manifest in various forms, including physical assault, coercion, and even murder, typically motivated by cultural, social, or familial expectations regarding behavior and sexuality.
Intersectionality in Warfare: Intersectionality in warfare refers to the ways in which overlapping social identities, such as gender, race, class, and sexuality, impact individuals' experiences and roles in conflict situations. This concept helps to highlight that the experiences of soldiers, civilians, and those affected by warfare are shaped by multiple factors, leading to varied vulnerabilities and resistances. By understanding intersectionality in this context, one can appreciate the complexity of social dynamics and power relations that influence who participates in warfare and how they are treated during and after conflicts.
Military masculinities: Military masculinities refer to the culturally constructed ideals of masculinity that emerge within military contexts, emphasizing traits such as strength, bravery, aggression, and dominance. These ideals shape the behaviors, identities, and experiences of those who serve in armed forces, often influencing how soldiers view themselves and each other during warfare and conquest.
Penthesilea's Death: Penthesilea's death is a powerful motif in Greek art and literature, illustrating the tragic end of the Amazon queen at the hands of Achilles during the Trojan War. This moment captures the complex interplay of gender and power dynamics, highlighting both the valor of female warriors and the brutal reality of ancient warfare. Through various artistic representations and narratives, this event emphasizes themes of honor, loss, and the intersection of gender roles in a male-dominated society.
Queen Artemisia I of Caria: Queen Artemisia I of Caria was a powerful and influential ruler in the ancient world, known for her leadership during the Greco-Persian Wars. She was a significant figure in ancient warfare, commanding her own fleet and demonstrating exceptional strategic acumen, which challenges traditional gender roles associated with military leadership in her time.
Scythian women warriors: Scythian women warriors were female members of the nomadic Scythian culture, known for their involvement in warfare and equestrian skills during the 1st millennium BCE in the Eurasian steppes. These women challenged traditional gender norms by actively participating in battles, often depicted as fierce warriors alongside their male counterparts, highlighting a unique aspect of gender roles in ancient warfare and conquest.
Sexual humiliation as a tactic: Sexual humiliation as a tactic refers to the use of sexual degradation and violence to assert power, dominance, and control over individuals or groups, particularly during warfare and conquest. This practice is often employed as a means of psychological warfare, intending to break the spirit of the defeated and reinforce the superiority of the conquerors. By targeting individuals' sexual identities and dignity, perpetrators aim to undermine the social fabric of the vanquished communities.
Shame culture in military societies: Shame culture in military societies refers to a social framework where individuals are motivated to adhere to societal norms and expectations primarily to avoid feelings of shame. In these cultures, honor and reputation are paramount, especially among soldiers, influencing their behavior, decision-making, and interpersonal dynamics. This concept is closely tied to notions of masculinity, valor, and the consequences of failing to meet the community's standards, particularly during warfare and conquest.
Spartan mother telling her son to return with his shield or on it: This phrase encapsulates the Spartan ideal of valor in battle, emphasizing the expectation that soldiers should either return victorious, carrying their shield, or die honorably on the battlefield. It reflects the harsh realities of Spartan society, where courage and loyalty to the state were paramount, particularly in the context of warfare and military prowess.
Telephus: Telephus is a figure from Greek mythology known as a Trojan War hero and the son of Heracles and Auge. He played a significant role in the early phases of the Trojan War, being both a warrior and a ruler, which connects him to themes of gender and sexuality in ancient warfare. His story highlights the complex interplay between masculinity, honor, and vulnerability in the context of conflict and conquest.
The rape of the sabine women: The rape of the Sabine women refers to a legendary event in Roman mythology where the early Romans, lacking women to secure their future, abducted women from the neighboring Sabine tribe during a festival. This incident highlights themes of violence and conquest intertwined with gender dynamics, showcasing how women were often viewed as prizes or spoils in warfare and social conflicts, reflecting broader societal norms around masculinity and power.
Warrior women: Warrior women refer to female figures in various cultures and historical contexts who engaged in combat, often defying traditional gender roles. These women were not just symbolic but often played significant roles in warfare, leading armies, or serving as fierce fighters, showcasing the complexities of gender and power dynamics in ancient societies.