⚧️Ancient Gender and Sexuality Unit 6 – Men in Ancient Societies

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Patriarchy: social system where men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property
• Hegemonic masculinity: cultural ideal of manliness that connects masculinity to competitiveness, toughness, and women's subordination
• Gender roles: set of societal norms dictating what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on their sex
• Homosociality: social bonds between persons of the same sex (male bonding)
• Pater familias: male head of a family or household in ancient Roman society
  • Had nearly absolute authority over his family, including the power of life and death
• Virtus: complex of values that constituted the ideal Roman man (manliness, courage, character, worth, strength)
• Wen and wu: two complementary aspects of male identity in ancient China
  • Wen: cultural attainment and refinement
  • Wu: martial valor and physical prowess

Historical Context and Timeline

• Ancient civilizations developed patriarchal structures that shaped gender roles and expectations (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, China)
• Rise of agriculture and settled societies (Neolithic Revolution) led to changes in gender roles and division of labor
  • Men increasingly associated with public sphere, warfare, and leadership
  • Women increasingly associated with domestic sphere and childrearing
• Development of written law codes (Code of Hammurabi, Twelve Tables) codified patriarchal norms and gender hierarchies
• Classical period (Greece and Rome) saw the elaboration of philosophical and medical theories about gender differences
  • Aristotle's biology and politics justified male dominance
  • Galen's medical theories posited women as inferior, inverted men
• Confucianism in ancient China emphasized patriarchal family structure and filial piety
• Spread of world religions (Christianity, Islam) in late antiquity reinforced patriarchal values and gender norms

Social Roles and Expectations

• Men expected to be providers, protectors, and leaders in family and society
• Ideal masculine traits included strength, courage, honor, self-control, and rationality
• Men's roles centered on public sphere: politics, warfare, trade, agriculture, crafts
• Education and literacy largely restricted to elite males in most ancient societies
  • Some exceptions in Sparta, where girls received physical training, and in Rome, where some upper-class women were educated
• Male friendships and homosocial bonds important in political and military life (symposia in Greece, comitatus in Germanic societies)
• Rites of passage marked transitions to manhood (Spartan agoge, Roman toga virilis)
• Aging men expected to embody wisdom, authority, and self-mastery

Masculinity in Ancient Cultures

• Ancient Greece: ideal of the kaloskagathos (beautiful and good man) combining physical beauty, athletic prowess, and moral virtue
  • Homeric heroes (Achilles, Odysseus) embodied martial valor and cunning
  • Athenian citizen expected to participate in politics, warfare, and public life
  • Pederasty institutionalized relationships between older and younger men
• Ancient Rome: ideal of the vir (man) as self-controlled, rational, and dominant
  • Virtus (manliness) linked to courage, honor, and public service
  • Stoic philosophy emphasized emotional restraint and inner strength
  • Homosexual behavior accepted in some contexts (pederasty, sex with slaves/prostitutes) but not as an exclusive orientation
• Ancient China: balance of wen (cultural refinement) and wu (martial valor)
  • Confucian gentleman (junzi) cultivated morality, learning, and self-discipline
  • Warrior heroes celebrated in literature and folklore (Guan Yu, Yue Fei)
  • Same-sex relationships documented, but often in unequal power dynamics (emperors and favorites)

Power Structures and Hierarchy

• Patriarchal power structures privileged men in political, legal, economic, and social spheres
• Kingship and imperial rule were male-dominated institutions (pharaohs, emperors, kings)
  • Some exceptional cases of female rulers (Hatshepsut in Egypt, Wu Zetian in China), but often seen as aberrations
• Political participation and citizenship restricted to men in most ancient societies (Athenian democracy, Roman Republic)
• Legal systems favored men in areas of property, inheritance, marriage, and divorce
  • Women often treated as property of male relatives (fathers, husbands, brothers)
  • Some legal protections for women in Babylonian and Roman law, but still subordinate to men
• Economic power concentrated in the hands of elite men (landowners, merchants, craftsmen)
  • Women's economic activities often limited to household production and management
• Religious hierarchy dominated by men (priests, monks, shamans)
  • Some female religious roles (Vestal Virgins in Rome, priestesses in Greece and Egypt), but subordinate to male authority

Family and Relationships

• Patriarchal family structure with father as head of household (pater familias in Rome)
• Arranged marriages common, with women often marrying at younger ages than men
  • Marriage alliances used to forge political and economic ties between families
  • Dowry systems in Greece and Rome placed economic value on women as brides
• Procreation and fatherhood central to masculine identity and family continuity
  • Infertility and childlessness seen as a misfortune or curse
  • Exposure of unwanted infants (often girls) practiced in some societies (Greece, Rome, China)
• Concubinage and polygyny accepted in some ancient cultures (China, Persia, Egypt)
  • Multiple wives and concubines a mark of wealth and status for elite men
• Same-sex relationships between men documented in many ancient cultures
  • Often structured by age and power differentials (pederasty in Greece, prostitution in Rome)
  • Rarely seen as a distinct sexual orientation or identity

Representation in Art and Literature

• Heroic masculinity celebrated in epic poetry and mythology (Gilgamesh, Iliad, Mahabharata)
  • Heroes embodied martial prowess, courage, and honor
  • Tension between heroic individualism and social/familial obligations
• Male nudity in Greek art associated with athletic and martial ideal (Doryphoros, Riace bronzes)
  • Contrasted with clothed, modest depiction of women
• Roman art emphasized masculine virtues of gravitas, pietas, and dignitas (Ara Pacis, Augustus of Prima Porta)
• Chinese literature and art celebrated both scholar-officials and warrior heroes
  • Confucian classics (Analects, Mencius) extolled moral cultivation and self-discipline
  • Martial heroes in novels and opera (Romance of the Three Kingdoms, The Battle of Red Cliffs)
• Men's bodies and sexuality more openly depicted than women's in ancient art
  • Erotic art in Greece, Rome, India (Khajuraho temples) and Peru (Moche pottery) featured male sexuality
  • Female nudity and sexuality more often veiled, euphemized or symbolized

Comparison Across Ancient Societies

• Patriarchal structures and values widespread across ancient civilizations
  • Some variations in the degree and specifics of male dominance
  • Sparta a notable exception with greater gender equality and female power
• Ideal masculine traits similar across cultures: strength, courage, honor, self-control
  • Specific expressions varied (Greek kaloskagathos, Roman vir, Chinese junzi)
• Division between public and domestic spheres a common basis for gender roles
  • Some blurring of spheres in Sparta, Rome (women's economic and social influence)
• Male same-sex relations present in many ancient societies
  • Often age- and power-structured (pederasty) rather than egalitarian
  • Rarely seen as a distinct sexual identity
• Representations of masculinity in art and literature reflect cultural values
  • Heroic archetypes (epic heroes) vs. refined, self-disciplined ideals (Confucian scholars)
  • More open depiction of male bodies and sexuality than female
• All ancient societies were hierarchical, but some allowed for limited female power and influence
  • Especially in the realms of religion (priestesses), economy (property ownership), and politics (queens and regents)