9.3 The National Organization for Women (NOW) and other feminist organizations
8 min read•august 13, 2024
The emerged as a powerhouse in the fight for women's rights during the Second Wave Feminist Movement. Founded in 1966, NOW aimed to bring women into full participation in American society, tackling issues like and .
NOW's impact was far-reaching, influencing legislation and court decisions that advanced gender equality. The organization's efforts, along with those of other feminist groups, challenged societal norms and paved the way for significant progress in women's rights across various spheres of life.
History and Purpose of NOW
Founding of NOW
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- NOW was founded in 1966 by a group of feminists, including , author of "The Feminine Mystique"
- "The Feminine Mystique" highlighted the dissatisfaction and inequality experienced by many American women in the 1960s
- The book sparked a national conversation about women's roles and rights in society
- The formation of NOW was catalyzed by the failure to enforce Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
- Title VII prohibited sex discrimination in employment
- Despite the law, women continued to face widespread discrimination in the workplace
Goals and Objectives of NOW
- NOW's purpose was to take action to bring women into full participation in the mainstream of American society
- The organization sought to ensure women could exercise all privileges and responsibilities in truly equal partnership with men
- This included equal access to education, employment, political participation, and social freedoms
- Key goals of NOW included achieving economic equality, political influence, and social and personal freedoms for women
- Economic equality encompassed issues such as equal pay for equal work and ending gender-based employment discrimination
- Political influence involved increasing women's representation in elected office and advocating for legislation that advanced women's rights
- Social and personal freedoms included reproductive rights, freedom from sexual violence and harassment, and challenging traditional and expectations
- NOW advocated for various issues such as equal pay, reproductive rights, lesbian rights, and the
- The Equal Rights Amendment was a proposed constitutional amendment that would guarantee equal rights for women under the law
- Reproductive rights included access to contraception and abortion, which were seen as essential to women's bodily autonomy and self-determination
- NOW's support for lesbian rights challenged the marginalization and discrimination faced by lesbian women within the feminist movement and society at large
NOW's Impact on Women's Rights
Legal and Legislative Achievements
- NOW successfully lobbied for the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce Title VII
- The EEOC was responsible for investigating and prosecuting cases of employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin
- NOW's pressure helped ensure that the EEOC took sex discrimination cases seriously and enforced the law effectively
- The organization played a crucial role in several landmark Supreme Court cases related to women's rights
- Examples include Reed v. Reed (1971), which struck down a state law that gave preference to men over women in appointing administrators of estates
- Frontiero v. Richardson (1973) challenged the constitutionality of gender-based discrimination in the military
- NOW's efforts contributed to the passage of significant legislation such as the of 1963, of the Education Amendments of 1972, and the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978
- The Equal Pay Act required equal pay for equal work regardless of gender
- Title IX prohibited sex discrimination in education programs receiving federal funding, opening up new opportunities for women in athletics and academics
- The Pregnancy Discrimination Act banned employment discrimination based on pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions
Changing Societal Attitudes
- NOW's advocacy and consciousness-raising efforts helped change societal attitudes towards women's roles and capabilities
- The organization challenged traditional gender norms and expectations that limited women's opportunities and freedoms
- Through public education campaigns, protests, and media outreach, NOW helped raise awareness about the systemic nature of gender inequality and the need for change
- The organization's work in promoting reproductive rights was instrumental in advancing women's bodily autonomy and healthcare
- NOW fought for access to contraception and abortion, arguing that women had the right to control their own reproductive choices
- The organization's efforts helped destigmatize abortion and frame it as a fundamental right rather than a moral failing
- Despite facing opposition and setbacks, such as the failure to ratify the ERA, NOW's persistent activism laid the groundwork for future progress in gender equality
- Although the ERA fell short of ratification, the campaign for its passage raised consciousness about the need for constitutional protections against sex discrimination
- NOW's work inspired future generations of feminists and helped build a broader movement for women's rights that continues to this day
Prominent Feminist Organizations in the Second Wave
Women's Equity Action League (WEAL)
- WEAL, founded in 1968, focused on legal and economic issues affecting women
- The organization fought against discrimination in education and employment
- WEAL filed lawsuits and lobbied for legislation to promote gender equity in these areas
- One of WEAL's major campaigns was the fight for Title IX, which prohibited sex discrimination in education programs receiving federal funding
- WEAL's advocacy helped ensure that Title IX was effectively enforced and that schools and universities complied with its requirements
- The organization also worked to increase women's access to higher education and professional training programs
National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC)
- The NWPC, established in 1971, aimed to increase women's participation in politics and elect more women to public office
- The organization provided training, support, and resources to women candidates running for elected positions at all levels of government
- NWPC also lobbied for legislation that advanced women's rights and supported women-friendly public policies
- One of NWPC's key strategies was to build coalitions with other women's organizations and civil rights groups
- By working together, these organizations were able to amplify their voices and increase their political influence
- NWPC also encouraged women to become more politically active and to use their voting power to support candidates who championed women's rights
Reproductive Rights Organizations
- The , founded in 1969, advocated for women's reproductive rights and access to safe, legal abortion
- NARAL worked to repeal restrictive abortion laws and to defend the legality of abortion in the face of anti-abortion activism
- The organization also provided education and resources to help women access abortion services and to destigmatize the procedure
- Other reproductive rights organizations, such as Planned Parenthood and the National Women's Health Network, also played important roles in the second wave feminist movement
- These organizations provided healthcare services, including contraception and abortion, to women who may not have had access otherwise
- They also engaged in public education campaigns to promote reproductive health and rights as essential components of women's liberation
Black Feminist Organizations
- The National , formed in 1973, addressed the unique challenges faced by Black women and the intersection of race and gender in their experiences
- NBFO argued that the mainstream feminist movement often neglected the specific needs and concerns of Black women
- The organization worked to raise awareness about issues such as racial discrimination, economic inequality, and violence against Black women
- The , a Black feminist lesbian organization active in the 1970s, emphasized the interconnectedness of multiple oppressions
- The Collective developed the concept of identity politics, arguing that one's identity as a Black woman or a lesbian was inherently political
- They also critiqued the racism and homophobia within the feminist movement and society at large, calling for a more inclusive and intersectional approach to liberation
Diverse Perspectives Within Feminism
Liberal Feminism
- , exemplified by NOW, focused on achieving equality through legal and political reforms within the existing system
- This approach emphasized the importance of individual rights and equal opportunities for women
- Liberal feminists sought to remove legal and social barriers that prevented women from participating fully in public life, such as discrimination in education and employment
- Critics of liberal feminism argued that it did not go far enough in challenging the underlying structures of and capitalism
- They believed that simply integrating women into existing institutions would not address the root causes of gender oppression
- Some also criticized liberal feminism for prioritizing the needs and experiences of white, middle-class women over those of women of color and working-class women
Radical Feminism
- , which emerged in the late 1960s, viewed patriarchy as the root cause of women's oppression
- Radical feminists argued that gender inequality was not just a matter of individual attitudes or legal discrimination, but a systemic issue deeply embedded in society's institutions and culture
- They believed that achieving true liberation for women required a fundamental restructuring of society and the elimination of male supremacy in all its forms
- Radical feminists often focused on issues such as violence against women, sexual exploitation, and the objectification of women's bodies
- They organized consciousness-raising groups where women could share their experiences and develop a sense of solidarity and collective power
- Some radical feminists also advocated for separatism, arguing that women needed to create their own communities and institutions apart from men in order to achieve liberation
Socialist Feminism
- analyzed the intersection of gender oppression with class exploitation
- Socialist feminists argued that women's liberation required a transformation of both patriarchal and capitalist systems
- They believed that gender inequality was deeply intertwined with economic inequality and that true liberation for women could only be achieved through a socialist revolution
- Socialist feminists often focused on issues such as the gendered division of labor, the exploitation of women's unpaid domestic work, and the ways in which capitalism reinforced traditional gender roles
- They advocated for policies such as universal childcare, paid family leave, and the socialization of domestic work
- Socialist feminists also emphasized the importance of building alliances with other oppressed groups, such as workers and people of color, in order to create a broad-based movement for social justice
Black Feminism and Womanism
- and emphasized the unique experiences of Black women and the importance of addressing the combined effects of racism and
- Black feminists argued that the mainstream feminist movement often ignored or marginalized the voices and experiences of Black women
- They developed theories and practices that centered the lives and struggles of Black women, such as the concept of
- Womanists, a term coined by Alice Walker, emphasized the spirituality, creativity, and resilience of Black women
- Womanism celebrated the ways in which Black women had created their own forms of resistance and empowerment in the face of oppression
- Womanists also emphasized the importance of community and the interconnectedness of all forms of oppression
Lesbian Feminism
- challenged heteronormativity and argued that lesbian identity and relationships were central to the feminist struggle
- Lesbian feminists believed that heterosexuality was a key component of patriarchal oppression and that women's liberation required the rejection of male-defined sexuality
- They created separatist communities and organizations where lesbian women could live and work together free from male violence and control
- Lesbian feminists also critiqued the homophobia and marginalization of lesbian women within the broader feminist movement
- They argued that feminism needed to be inclusive of all women, regardless of their sexual orientation
- Lesbian feminists also emphasized the ways in which sexuality and gender were socially constructed and challenged the binary categories of male/female and heterosexual/homosexual
Key Terms to Review (28)
Betty Friedan: Betty Friedan was an influential American feminist writer and activist, best known for her groundbreaking book 'The Feminine Mystique,' published in 1963. This work challenged traditional gender roles and sparked the second wave of feminism, addressing the dissatisfaction of many women in post-war America who felt confined to domestic roles. Friedan's ideas helped to galvanize women into action, contributing to the formation of feminist organizations that sought equality and social change.
Black feminism: Black feminism is a social and political movement that addresses the unique struggles faced by Black women, highlighting the intersections of race, gender, and class. This perspective emphasizes that sexism, racism, and class oppression are interconnected systems of discrimination that must be challenged simultaneously, advocating for a holistic approach to feminism that includes the voices and experiences of women of color.
Black Feminist Organization (NBFO): The Black Feminist Organization (NBFO) was a collective that emerged in the 1970s to address the unique challenges faced by Black women in America, advocating for their rights within both feminist and civil rights movements. It sought to highlight how race, gender, and class intersect, forming a distinct identity that required specific attention and action. The organization emphasized that mainstream feminist movements often overlooked the experiences of Black women, pushing for inclusive policies and representation.
Civil rights movement: The civil rights movement was a pivotal social and political struggle in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans. This movement encompassed various groups advocating for equal rights, highlighting the intersections of gender and race, as well as the broader quest for equality across different societal spheres.
Combahee River Collective: The Combahee River Collective was a Black feminist organization founded in the 1970s, known for its emphasis on the intersections of race, gender, and sexuality in the struggle for social justice. The collective produced a groundbreaking statement in 1977 that highlighted the unique experiences of Black women and the necessity of addressing both racism and sexism simultaneously in feminist movements. Their work laid the groundwork for intersectionality as a critical framework in understanding oppression and activism.
Equal Pay Act: The Equal Pay Act of 1963 is a U.S. law aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex. It requires that men and women receive equal pay for equal work in the same establishment, highlighting the ongoing struggle for gender equality in the workforce and its broader implications in historical analysis, especially concerning women's rights movements and changing gender roles.
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA): The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution aimed at guaranteeing equal legal rights for all American citizens, regardless of sex. The amendment was first introduced in Congress in 1923 and was designed to eliminate discrimination based on gender, ensuring that men and women would have equal rights under the law. The ERA gained significant traction during the feminist movements of the 1960s and 1970s, particularly with the support of organizations advocating for women's rights.
Gender roles: Gender roles refer to the expectations and behaviors that society considers appropriate for individuals based on their perceived gender. These roles influence personal identity, social interactions, and the distribution of power and resources, shaping experiences across various historical contexts.
Gloria Steinem: Gloria Steinem is an influential American feminist, journalist, and social activist, known for her role in the women's liberation movement during the late 20th century. As a co-founder of the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966, she advocated for women's rights, focusing on issues such as reproductive rights, workplace equality, and gender-based violence. Steinem's work with NOW and her broader activism played a crucial part in shaping modern feminist discourse and empowering women across the United States.
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a framework for understanding how various social identities—such as race, gender, class, sexuality, and ability—interact and overlap to shape individual experiences and societal dynamics. This concept emphasizes that people's experiences of oppression or privilege are not determined by a single identity but are influenced by multiple interconnected factors.
Lesbian feminism: Lesbian feminism is a branch of feminist thought that emphasizes the intersection of feminist and lesbian identities, advocating for the rights and recognition of women who love women. It seeks to address the unique challenges faced by lesbians within the broader feminist movement while promoting gender equality and challenging patriarchal norms. This perspective gained prominence in the 1970s and highlighted the need for inclusion within feminist organizations, like the National Organization for Women (NOW).
Lgbtq+ rights: LGBTQ+ rights refer to the legal and social rights that ensure equality and protection for individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or other sexual orientations and gender identities. This movement advocates for recognition, acceptance, and protection from discrimination in various aspects of life, including employment, marriage, healthcare, and housing. These rights have been shaped by historical movements and continue to evolve alongside broader social justice efforts.
Liberal feminism: Liberal feminism is a branch of feminist theory that emphasizes individual rights, equality, and the importance of legal and political reforms to achieve gender equality. It advocates for women's access to the same opportunities as men within existing societal structures, focusing on issues like education, workplace rights, and reproductive rights.
National Abortion Rights Action League (NARAL): The National Abortion Rights Action League (NARAL) is an American organization that advocates for reproductive rights, particularly the right to access safe and legal abortions. Founded in 1969, NARAL plays a crucial role in mobilizing political action, educating the public about reproductive issues, and lobbying for policies that protect women's health and autonomy. The organization often collaborates with other feminist groups, including the National Organization for Women (NOW), to promote broader gender equality and reproductive justice.
National Organization for Women (NOW): The National Organization for Women (NOW) is a prominent American feminist organization founded in 1966, aimed at advocating for women's rights and equality across various spheres, including workplace, reproductive rights, and education. NOW emerged as a response to the lack of progress in achieving gender equality and sought to address key issues that affected women during the second wave feminist movement.
National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC): The National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC) is an organization founded in 1971 that aims to increase women's participation in the political process and support female candidates for public office. This group was formed in response to the underrepresentation of women in politics and serves as a platform for promoting women's rights, encouraging political activism, and advocating for gender equality in governance.
Patriarchy: Patriarchy is a social system in which men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. This system influences gender relations and shapes societal norms, often resulting in the marginalization of women and non-binary individuals throughout history.
Radical feminism: Radical feminism is a branch of feminist theory that seeks to address the root causes of women's oppression by focusing on the patriarchy as a systemic structure that perpetuates inequality. This approach emphasizes the need for a fundamental societal transformation, advocating for women's liberation through the dismantling of patriarchal institutions and challenging traditional gender roles. Radical feminists often view issues such as sexual violence, reproductive rights, and economic inequality as interconnected elements of a larger struggle against male dominance.
Reproductive Rights: Reproductive rights refer to the legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health, encompassing issues like contraception, abortion, and access to healthcare. This concept is deeply intertwined with discussions about gender equality, personal autonomy, and social justice, influencing various movements and societal changes throughout history.
Roe v. Wade: Roe v. Wade is a landmark 1973 Supreme Court case that legalized abortion nationwide, ruling that a woman's right to choose to have an abortion is protected by the constitutional right to privacy. This case became a pivotal moment for women's rights and reproductive freedom, influencing various movements and political discourses related to gender, family values, and morality.
Sexism: Sexism is the belief that one gender is inherently superior to another, leading to discrimination and prejudice based on gender. It often manifests in social, political, and economic inequalities where one gender, typically women, faces disadvantages. This belief system fuels various movements aimed at advocating for gender equality and combating discriminatory practices.
Socialist feminism: Socialist feminism is a branch of feminist theory that combines the principles of socialism with feminist beliefs, emphasizing the interconnection between the oppression of women and the exploitation inherent in capitalism. It argues that the liberation of women cannot be achieved without addressing social class inequalities and advocates for social change to achieve gender equality within a framework of social justice. This perspective critiques both traditional Marxism for its focus on class alone and mainstream feminism for its often limited approach to class issues.
Title IX: Title IX is a federal law enacted in 1972 that prohibits discrimination based on sex in educational programs and activities receiving federal financial assistance. This legislation transformed the landscape of education, particularly in athletics, by promoting gender equality and ensuring that women and girls have equal opportunities to participate in sports and educational programs.
Womanism: Womanism is a social theory that emerges from the experiences and struggles of Black women, highlighting the intersection of race, gender, and class. It focuses on the unique challenges faced by women of color, advocating for a more inclusive approach to feminism that encompasses issues of race, culture, and community.
Women's Equity Action League (WEAL): The Women's Equity Action League (WEAL) is an organization founded in 1968 that aimed to address and promote women's equity in the workplace, education, and other areas of society. WEAL played a crucial role in advocating for women's rights and influenced various feminist movements, including the National Organization for Women (NOW), by focusing on policy changes and legal reforms to ensure equal opportunities for women.
Women's Health Equity Act: The Women's Health Equity Act is a piece of legislation aimed at eliminating barriers to healthcare access and ensuring that women receive comprehensive and equitable healthcare services. This act addresses disparities in health outcomes for women, particularly those from marginalized communities, by promoting research, education, and funding for women's health issues. It is closely linked to feminist organizations that advocate for gender equality in healthcare and push for policies that prioritize women's health needs.
Women’s liberation movement: The women’s liberation movement was a social and political movement that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, aiming to achieve equal rights and opportunities for women, challenging traditional gender roles and advocating for women's rights in various spheres of life. This movement sought to address issues like workplace discrimination, reproductive rights, and sexual autonomy, reshaping societal expectations and pushing for legislative changes that would enhance women's freedoms.
Workplace discrimination: Workplace discrimination refers to the unfair treatment of individuals in a work environment based on characteristics such as race, gender, age, religion, disability, or sexual orientation. This form of discrimination can manifest in hiring practices, promotions, job assignments, and workplace conditions, creating barriers for affected groups. Feminist organizations have played a crucial role in advocating for equal rights and fair treatment in the workplace, pushing for laws and policies that address these injustices.