9.1 Technological Advancements and Economic Changes
6 min read•july 30, 2024
The brought sweeping technological changes that reshaped economies and societies. New inventions like the , , and revolutionized manufacturing, transportation, and communication. These advancements led to , , and the rise of big business.
These innovations had profound social impacts, transforming class structures and labor relations. The emergence of a wealthy industrial elite, expansion of the , and growth of an created new social dynamics and economic inequalities, setting the stage for socialist movements.
Technological Innovations of the Second Industrial Revolution
Steel and Manufacturing Advancements
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- Bessemer process revolutionized steel production enabled mass production of high-quality steel at lower costs
- Increased steel output from 22,000 tons in 1867 to 500,000 tons by 1877
- Led to construction of stronger bridges, taller buildings (), and more durable railroad tracks
- Internal combustion engine transformed transportation and manufacturing
- Powered (), tractors, and industrial machinery
- Improved efficiency and mobility compared to steam engines
- techniques increased manufacturing efficiency and output
- Henry Ford's moving assembly line reduced Model T production time from 12 hours to 2.5 hours
- Allowed for mass production of consumer goods (refrigerators, washing machines)
Electrical and Communication Breakthroughs
- Harnessing of electricity for industrial use changed factory operations and urban life
- powered machinery more efficiently than steam engines
- Electric lighting (Edison's light bulb) extended working hours and improved safety
- Telephone invention by in 1876 revolutionized long-distance communication
- Facilitated faster business transactions and information exchange
- By 1900, there were nearly 600,000 telephones in the United States
- improvements enabled rapid global communication
- completed in 1866 reduced communication time from weeks to minutes
Chemical and Material Innovations
- Advancements in chemical engineering led to creation of synthetic materials
- Plastics (Bakelite) revolutionized consumer goods production
- Artificial dyes (mauveine) transformed textile industry
- Development of new industrial processes
- Solvay process for producing sodium carbonate reduced costs in glass and soap manufacturing
- Haber-Bosch process for synthesizing ammonia enabled large-scale fertilizer production
Impacts of Rapid Industrialization
Social Class Transformations
- Rise of led to emergence of wealthy
- Industrialists like and amassed unprecedented wealth
- New class of financiers and bankers gained significant economic influence
- Working class experienced significant changes due to industrialization
- Urbanization led to overcrowded cities and poor living conditions
- Long working hours (12-16 hour days) and hazardous conditions in factories and mines
- became widespread, with children as young as 5 working in factories
- Middle class expanded and diversified with new professional occupations
- Management, engineering, and administrative roles grew in importance
- Increased demand for teachers, doctors, and lawyers to serve growing urban populations
Economic and Demographic Shifts
- Rural populations affected by agricultural mechanization and urban job opportunities
- Rural-to-urban migration led to rapid growth of cities (London's population grew from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million in 1900)
- Agricultural workforce in Britain decreased from 35% in 1801 to 11% in 1901
- Income inequality widened between industrial elite and working class
- Fueled social tensions and rise of (formation of )
- Led to strikes and protests demanding better working conditions and wages
- Demand for skilled labor in new industries led to advancements in education
- Establishment of technical schools and vocational training programs
- Increased literacy rates among working and middle classes
Changing Roles and Social Dynamics
- Women's roles in society began to shift with increased industrial workforce participation
- Often employed in lower-paying and less prestigious positions than men (textile mills, domestic service)
- By 1911, 32% of women in Britain were employed outside the home
- Family structures adapted to industrial life
- Nuclear families became more common as extended families separated due to migration
- Child-rearing practices changed with both parents often working outside the home
- Urbanization led to new forms of entertainment and social interaction
- Music halls, theaters, and sports events became popular among working classes
- Department stores emerged as centers of consumer culture and social gathering
Government Role in Industrial Growth
Economic Policies and Regulations
- policies initially promoted rapid industrial growth
- Minimal government intervention in business affairs encouraged entrepreneurship
- Led to monopolies and trusts in some industries (Standard Oil in the United States)
- implemented by some nations shielded domestic industries
- Germany's "Iron and Rye Tariff" of 1879 protected both industrial and agricultural sectors
- United States implemented high tariffs ( of 1890) to protect growing industries
- Introduction of labor laws and factory regulations aimed to improve working conditions
- limited child labor and mandated inspections
- German social insurance laws of the 1880s provided health, accident, and old-age benefits
Infrastructure and Innovation Support
- Government investment in infrastructure facilitated transportation of goods
- (France's railway network grew from 3,000 km in 1850 to 42,000 km in 1900)
- Port developments (Hamburg in Germany, Rotterdam in the Netherlands)
- and intellectual property protections encouraged innovation
- United States Patent Act of 1790 granted inventors exclusive rights for 14 years
- German Patent Law of 1877 stimulated industrial research and development
- Establishment of central banks and monetary policies stabilized currencies
- Bank of England's role in maintaining gold standard
- Creation of the in the United States in 1913
Education and Research Initiatives
- Government-sponsored education reforms provided skilled workforce
- (Prussia's 1763 edict, England's 1870 Education Act)
- Establishment of technical universities (German Technische Hochschulen)
- Support for scientific research and its industrial applications
- Creation of national research institutions ( in Germany, 1911)
- Government funding for university research programs in chemistry and physics
Second vs First Industrial Revolutions
Technological Focus and Scale
- First Industrial Revolution centered on textiles, iron, and steam power
- Key inventions included spinning jenny, steam engine, and puddling process for iron
- Second Industrial Revolution expanded into steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum
- Bessemer process for steel, , electric motors, and oil refining
- Scale of production increased dramatically in Second Industrial Revolution
- First: Small workshops and water-powered mills
- Second: Large factories with assembly lines (Ford's Highland Park plant produced 300,000 cars in 1914)
Geographic Spread and Economic Impact
- First Industrial Revolution primarily centered in Great Britain
- Textile industry concentrated in Lancashire and Yorkshire
- Second Industrial Revolution spread across Europe, North America, and Japan
- United States became world's largest industrial producer by 1900
- Germany surpassed Britain in chemical and electrical industries
- Impact on global trade and economic power shifted
- First: Britain dominated global trade and finance
- Second: Rise of new industrial powers (United States, Germany) challenged British hegemony
Scientific and Organizational Advancements
- Scientific research played more significant role in Second Industrial Revolution
- First: Mostly practical inventions by skilled craftsmen
- Second: Systematic application of scientific principles (Edison's research laboratory)
- Corporate organization and management emphasized in Second Industrial Revolution
- First: Mostly family-owned businesses and partnerships
- Second: Rise of large-scale enterprises and conglomerates (U.S. Steel, General Electric)
- Transportation advancements more pronounced in Second Industrial Revolution
- First: Canals and steam-powered ships and trains
- Second: Automobiles, improved railways (transcontinental railroads), and early aviation
Key Terms to Review (34)
Alexander Graham Bell: Alexander Graham Bell was a Scottish-born inventor, scientist, and teacher best known for his invention of the telephone in 1876. His work in telecommunications not only revolutionized how people communicate but also had a profound impact on technological advancements and economic changes during the late 19th century, influencing industries and everyday life.
Andrew Carnegie: Andrew Carnegie was a Scottish-American industrialist and philanthropist who led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century. His innovations in steel production, particularly the adoption of the Bessemer process, revolutionized construction and manufacturing, making steel more accessible and affordable, which significantly contributed to technological advancements and economic changes during this era.
Assembly line production: Assembly line production is a manufacturing process in which a product is assembled in a sequential manner through a series of workstations, where each station performs a specific task. This method enhances efficiency and reduces production time, making it possible to produce large quantities of goods at a lower cost. The system revolutionized manufacturing during the 19th century, leading to significant economic changes and the rise of mass production.
Automobiles: Automobiles are wheeled motor vehicles primarily designed for transporting passengers. They emerged in the late 19th century, revolutionizing transportation by offering speed and convenience that far surpassed horse-drawn carriages. This innovation not only transformed individual mobility but also had a profound impact on the economy, urban development, and social structures of the time.
Bessemer Process: The Bessemer Process is a revolutionary method for mass-producing steel by blowing air through molten iron to remove impurities. This innovation greatly reduced the cost of steel production and allowed for the widespread use of steel in construction, transportation, and manufacturing, significantly impacting industrial growth and economic changes during the 19th century.
Bourgeoisie: The bourgeoisie refers to the middle class in capitalist societies, characterized by their ownership of capital and their role in the economy. This social class emerged as a significant force during the 19th century, particularly as industrialization transformed economies and social structures across Europe.
British Factory Act of 1833: The British Factory Act of 1833 was a significant piece of legislation aimed at improving working conditions in factories, particularly for children and young people. It limited the working hours of children and mandated factory inspections to ensure compliance, marking an important step toward labor reform during the industrialization period. This act connected to broader social changes as it addressed public concerns about child labor, while also impacting the economic structure by forcing factories to adapt to new regulations.
Child Labor: Child labor refers to the practice of employing children in work that deprives them of their childhood, education, and potential, often occurring under hazardous conditions. This practice was prevalent during the 19th century due to industrialization, as factories and mines sought cheap labor to maximize profits. The exploitation of children in the workforce significantly influenced societal attitudes, economic structures, and cultural norms during this period.
Compulsory education laws: Compulsory education laws are regulations that require children to attend school for a certain period of time, ensuring that they receive a basic education. These laws were enacted in many European countries during the 19th century as part of broader efforts to improve literacy rates, adapt to industrialization, and promote social cohesion within rapidly changing societies.
Electric motors: Electric motors are machines that convert electrical energy into mechanical energy through electromagnetic interactions. These devices play a crucial role in driving various machinery and appliances, significantly impacting industrial processes and daily life during the 19th century.
Electricity: Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the movement of charged particles, particularly electrons. This concept transformed technological innovation in the 19th century, leading to advancements like the telegraph and electric lighting, which revolutionized communication and daily life. Its development significantly influenced industrial growth and economic changes, creating new industries and altering existing ones.
Federal Reserve System: The Federal Reserve System is the central banking system of the United States, established in 1913 to provide the country with a safer and more flexible monetary and financial system. It plays a crucial role in managing the nation's money supply, regulating banks, and providing financial services. The system has significant implications for technological advancements and economic changes as it influences interest rates, credit availability, and overall economic stability.
Ford Model T: The Ford Model T was an affordable automobile produced by the Ford Motor Company from 1908 to 1927, revolutionizing transportation and manufacturing processes in the early 20th century. It was the first car mass-produced on assembly lines, making it accessible to a broader segment of the American public, which ultimately transformed societal norms, economic structures, and urban landscapes.
Industrial capitalism: Industrial capitalism is an economic system characterized by the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit, primarily through industrial processes. This system emerged during the Industrial Revolution, fundamentally transforming economies and societies as technology advanced and manufacturing expanded, leading to significant changes in labor, class structure, and wealth distribution.
Internal combustion engine: The internal combustion engine is a type of engine that generates power through the combustion of fuel within a confined space, allowing for the conversion of chemical energy into mechanical energy. This innovation marked a significant turning point in transportation and manufacturing, enabling greater efficiency and mobility, which were crucial for economic growth during this period.
John D. Rockefeller: John D. Rockefeller was an American industrialist and philanthropist, co-founder of the Standard Oil Company, which dominated the oil industry and became one of the first major corporations in the United States. His business practices and immense wealth positioned him as a central figure in the rise of big business during a time of significant technological advancements and economic changes in America.
Kaiser Wilhelm Society: The Kaiser Wilhelm Society was a prominent German research organization founded in 1911, named after Kaiser Wilhelm II. It aimed to advance scientific research and foster innovation in various fields, reflecting the broader context of technological advancements and economic changes in early 20th-century Europe, particularly in Germany, where industrial growth was closely linked to scientific progress.
Labor Movements: Labor movements are organized efforts by workers to improve their working conditions, wages, and rights through collective action, often leading to the formation of labor unions. These movements emerged prominently in the 19th century as industrialization changed the nature of work and the economy, leading workers to advocate for better treatment and protections against exploitation in factories and other workplaces.
Laissez-faire: Laissez-faire is an economic philosophy that advocates for minimal government intervention in the affairs of businesses and markets. It emphasizes the idea that free markets and individual entrepreneurship can drive economic growth and efficiency, allowing supply and demand to determine prices and production levels. This concept was particularly influential during the Industrial Revolution, shaping economic policies and attitudes towards regulation.
Mass production: Mass production is a manufacturing process that uses standardized components and assembly line techniques to produce goods in large quantities. This approach not only enhances efficiency and lowers costs but also allows for the rapid creation of products, significantly transforming the economic landscape and industrial practices during the 19th century.
McKinley Tariff: The McKinley Tariff, enacted in 1890, was a significant piece of legislation that raised import duties on foreign goods to protect American industries and farmers. This tariff was part of a broader trend towards protectionism in the late 19th century, reflecting the economic changes and technological advancements that were reshaping the U.S. economy during that time.
Middle class: The middle class refers to a social group that emerged prominently during the 19th century, characterized by economic stability, education, and a lifestyle distinct from both the upper and working classes. This class played a crucial role in the economy by fostering industrial growth and shaping social values, contributing to significant shifts in political and economic structures.
Patent laws: Patent laws are legal regulations that grant inventors exclusive rights to their inventions for a specified period, preventing others from making, using, or selling the invention without permission. These laws are crucial in promoting innovation and technological advancement by providing inventors with the assurance that their ideas will be protected and financially rewarded. By fostering a climate of creativity and investment in new technologies, patent laws significantly contribute to economic growth and change.
Protective tariffs: Protective tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods with the intention of making them more expensive than domestic products, thereby protecting local industries from foreign competition. By raising the cost of imports, these tariffs encourage consumers to buy domestic goods, which can help stimulate local economies and promote job growth in specific sectors.
Railway expansion: Railway expansion refers to the significant growth and development of railway networks across Europe during the 19th century, facilitating improved transportation of goods and people. This expansion revolutionized trade, contributed to industrial growth, and fundamentally altered social dynamics by making travel more accessible, thereby connecting distant regions economically and culturally.
Second industrial revolution: The second industrial revolution was a period of rapid industrial growth and technological innovation that occurred from the late 19th century to the early 20th century, characterized by advancements in steel production, electricity, and chemical processes. This phase built upon the first industrial revolution and marked a significant shift in economic practices, leading to increased productivity and the rise of new industries.
Skyscrapers: Skyscrapers are tall, continuously habitable buildings that reach significant heights, often exceeding 150 meters (approximately 492 feet). They emerged during the late 19th century as a result of technological advancements in construction methods, materials, and urbanization, fundamentally transforming city landscapes and economies by enabling vertical expansion in densely populated areas.
Socialism: Socialism is an economic and political system where the means of production, distribution, and exchange are owned or regulated by the community as a whole. This ideology advocates for social ownership and democratic control of the economy, aiming to reduce inequality and ensure that wealth is distributed more fairly among the population.
Synthetic dyes: Synthetic dyes are artificial colorants created through chemical processes, significantly transforming the textile industry and the broader economic landscape during the 19th century. These dyes were developed as alternatives to natural dyes derived from plants and animals, offering a wider range of vibrant colors and improved consistency. The rise of synthetic dyes not only revolutionized fashion but also had profound implications for manufacturing, commerce, and trade, driving innovation and economic growth.
Telegraph: The telegraph is a communication device invented in the early 19th century that uses electrical signals to transmit messages over long distances. It revolutionized the way information was shared, leading to significant changes in trade, politics, and society by allowing near-instantaneous communication, which was crucial during an era of rapid technological innovation and industrial growth.
Trade unions: Trade unions are organized groups of workers who come together to collectively negotiate for better wages, working conditions, and benefits. They emerged during the 19th century as a response to the harsh realities of industrialization and economic changes, advocating for workers' rights amidst rapid technological advancements and the evolving labor market.
Transatlantic telegraph cable: The transatlantic telegraph cable was an underwater communication cable that linked North America and Europe, allowing for instant communication across the Atlantic Ocean. This technological innovation significantly enhanced global connectivity, revolutionizing trade, diplomacy, and news dissemination between continents during the 19th century.
Urban working class: The urban working class refers to the group of laborers and workers living in cities during the 19th century, primarily engaged in industrial jobs that emerged from the Industrial Revolution. This social class played a crucial role in shaping economic and social structures, as their labor fueled rapid industrial growth and urbanization while also leading to significant changes in living conditions and labor relations.
Urbanization: Urbanization is the process by which rural areas transform into urban centers, marked by a significant increase in population density and the growth of cities. This shift has profound implications on social structures, economic practices, and cultural dynamics, as people migrate to cities in search of better employment opportunities, leading to both opportunities and challenges.