European History – 1890 to 1945
Table of Contents
Unit 5 Overview: The Russian Revolution and its Aftermath
5.1 The February Revolution and the Fall of the Romanovs
5.2 The Bolshevik Revolution and Rise of Lenin
5.3 The Russian Civil War and the Formation of the Soviet Union

The February Revolution of 1917 marked a pivotal moment in Russian history, ending centuries of Romanov rule. Sparked by economic hardships, food shortages, and political repression, it saw widespread protests in Petrograd escalate into a full-scale revolution against Tsar Nicholas II's autocratic regime.

World War I played a crucial role, exposing Russia's military and economic weaknesses. The Tsar's decision to personally lead the army backfired, linking him directly to military failures. This, combined with domestic unrest, led to his abdication and the formation of a Provisional Government.

Causes of the February Revolution

Economic and Social Factors

  • Widespread discontent among Russian populace stemmed from economic hardships, food shortages, and political repression under Tsar Nicholas II's autocratic rule
  • Rapid industrialization and urbanization in late 19th and early 20th centuries led to poor working conditions and social inequality
    • Fueled worker unrest and growth of revolutionary movements
  • Strikes and demonstrations in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in February 1917 escalated into full-scale revolution
    • Initially triggered by food shortages and deteriorating living conditions
  • Influence of socialist and liberal political ideologies mobilized opposition to Tsarist regime
    • Propagated by parties such as Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and Constitutional Democrats

Political Catalysts

  • Bloody Sunday massacre of 1905 eroded public trust in Tsarist government
    • Peaceful protesters fired upon by Imperial Guard (over 1000 killed or wounded)
  • Failed reforms of October Manifesto intensified revolutionary sentiments
    • Promised civil liberties and elected parliament, but Tsar retained autocratic power
  • Defection of military units to protesters' side shifted balance of power away from Tsar
    • Particularly significant was the Petrograd garrison joining the revolution
  • Growth of underground revolutionary organizations spread anti-Tsarist ideas
    • (Social Democratic Labor Party, Socialist Revolutionary Party)

World War I and the Romanov Dynasty

Military and Economic Strain

  • World War I exposed inefficiencies and weaknesses of Russian military and economic systems
    • Led to significant losses on battlefield (Battle of Tannenberg, Masurian Lakes)
    • Caused economic strain on home front (inflation, resource shortages)
  • Wartime inflation, food shortages, and disruption of trade routes exacerbated existing economic problems
    • Led to increased civilian hardship and discontent
  • War effort diverted resources from addressing domestic issues
    • Allowed social and political tensions to escalate unchecked
  • Mobilization of millions of peasants into army weakened agricultural production
    • Exposed rural conscripts to revolutionary ideas, undermining traditional support for monarchy

Political Consequences

  • Tsar Nicholas II's decision to personally take command of armed forces in 1915 damaged his reputation
    • Directly associated him with military failures
    • Left domestic governance in hands of Tsarina Alexandra and Rasputin, further eroding public trust
  • German propaganda and support for revolutionary groups destabilized Tsarist regime
    • Particularly supported Bolsheviks, contributing to anti-war sentiment
  • War highlighted incompetence of Tsarist bureaucracy and military leadership
    • (Shortages of rifles and ammunition, inadequate medical care for soldiers)

February Revolution's Impact

Political Transformation

  • Formation of Provisional Government marked shift from autocracy to more democratic governance
    • Led by liberal politicians (Prince Lvov, Alexander Kerensky)
  • Abolition of Tsarist secret police and censorship led to unprecedented political freedom
    • Allowed for open debate and criticism of government
  • Petrograd Soviet emerged as powerful parallel authority to Provisional Government
    • Created system of dual power, challenging Provisional Government's legitimacy
  • Land reform became central issue, though major decisions were postponed
    • Peasants began seizing estates and demanding redistribution

Social and Economic Changes

  • Wave of strikes and factory committee formations empowered workers
    • Challenged traditional economic hierarchies and management structures
  • Women's rights advanced significantly
    • Russia became one of first countries to grant women right to vote
  • Liberalization of society led to flourishing of cultural and artistic expression
    • (Avant-garde art movements, experimental theater)
  • Economic instability continued due to ongoing war effort and political uncertainty
    • Inflation accelerated, further straining civilian population

Abdication of Tsar Nicholas II

Internal Factors

  • Tsar's leadership style contributed to inability to address mounting crises
    • Characterized by indecisiveness and reliance on small circle of advisors
  • Influence of Rasputin on imperial family severely damaged monarchy's reputation
    • Created perception of corruption and mystical influence at heart of government
  • Tsar's isolation from political realities made him unable to gauge severity of revolutionary situation
    • Resistance to constitutional reforms further alienated potential supporters
  • Nicholas II's concern for family's safety influenced decision to abdicate
    • Hoped abdication would protect dynasty and allow for peaceful resolution

External Pressures

  • Military leaders and members of Duma (parliament) withdrew support for Tsar
    • Left him without significant power base to resist revolutionary forces
  • Spread of revolution to Moscow and other major cities made Tsar's position untenable
    • Demonstrated nationwide scale of uprising
  • Army's refusal to suppress uprising removed Tsar's last means of maintaining power
    • (Petrograd garrison, key military commanders like General Alekseev)
  • International pressure, particularly from Allied powers, for political reform
    • Feared Russia's potential withdrawal from World War I

Key Terms to Review (27)

Bolsheviks: The Bolsheviks were a radical socialist faction within the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, that played a key role in the October Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent establishment of Soviet power in Russia. Their ideology focused on a vanguard party leading the working class to revolution, contrasting with the more moderate Mensheviks who advocated for a broader, more democratic approach to socialism.
October Revolution: The October Revolution, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was a pivotal event in Russian history that occurred in October 1917, leading to the overthrow of the Provisional Government and the establishment of Bolshevik rule under Vladimir Lenin. This revolution marked a significant shift from a liberal democratic approach to a socialist state, setting the stage for the subsequent civil conflict and the eventual formation of the Soviet Union.
Socialist Revolutionary Party: The Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs) was a political party in Russia that emerged in the early 20th century, advocating for agrarian socialism and the redistribution of land among peasants. It played a crucial role during the revolutionary period, particularly during the February Revolution, where it sought to overthrow the autocratic rule of the Romanovs and promote social justice for the peasantry.
Social Democratic Labor Party: The Social Democratic Labor Party (SDLP) was a political party in Russia that emerged in the late 19th century, advocating for socialism and workers' rights. It played a crucial role in the political landscape leading up to the February Revolution of 1917, where it sought to represent the interests of the working class and promote democratic reforms. The party was characterized by its commitment to both socialism and democracy, which influenced many revolutionary movements during this transformative period in Russian history.
Social inequality: Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges among individuals or groups within society. This concept is crucial in understanding how disparities in wealth, education, and social status can lead to tension and conflict. In the context of the events leading up to the February Revolution, social inequality was a key factor that fueled dissatisfaction with the ruling class and ultimately contributed to the fall of the Romanovs.
Rasputin: Grigori Rasputin was a Russian mystic and advisor to the Romanov family, particularly close to Tsar Nicholas II and his wife, Alexandra. His influence over the royal family, especially in matters related to their son Alexei's hemophilia, contributed to the growing discontent among the Russian populace and is often seen as a significant factor leading up to the February Revolution and the eventual fall of the Romanovs.
Prince Lvov: Prince Lvov was a prominent Russian politician and statesman who served as the first head of the Provisional Government following the February Revolution in 1917. His leadership was marked by the challenge of navigating a country in turmoil, striving to address the demands of the people while managing the ongoing challenges of World War I and the Bolshevik threat.
Petrograd Soviet: The Petrograd Soviet was a key political organization that emerged during the February Revolution of 1917 in Russia, representing workers' and soldiers' interests in the capital, Petrograd (now St. Petersburg). It played a crucial role in the power struggle following the fall of the Romanovs by advocating for social reforms, workers' rights, and peace, positioning itself as a counterbalance to the provisional government.
Alexander Kerensky: Alexander Kerensky was a prominent Russian lawyer and revolutionary who played a key role during the early stages of the Russian Revolution in 1917. He served as the Minister of Justice and later as the Prime Minister in the Provisional Government, advocating for democratic reforms and civil liberties. His leadership was marked by attempts to maintain the war effort in World War I, which ultimately contributed to his downfall and the rise of the Bolsheviks.
October Manifesto: The October Manifesto was a document issued by Tsar Nicholas II in October 1905 that promised political reforms, including the establishment of a legislative assembly (Duma) and civil liberties. This manifesto was a response to the growing discontent among the Russian populace, particularly following the 1905 Revolution, which laid the groundwork for future revolutionary activities and ultimately contributed to the fall of the Romanovs.
Romanov Dynasty: The Romanov Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty to rule Russia, reigning from 1613 until the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in 1917. This dynasty is significant as it presided over the transformation of Russia into a major European power but ultimately fell due to internal strife and revolutionary movements, leading to the February Revolution and the eventual collapse of the monarchy.
Bloody Sunday: Bloody Sunday refers to the tragic event that took place on January 22, 1905, when peaceful protesters marching towards the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg were violently confronted by the Imperial Guard. This massacre marked a pivotal moment in Russian history, as it catalyzed widespread unrest and fueled revolutionary sentiment against the Romanov dynasty, ultimately contributing to the February Revolution and the fall of the Romanovs in 1917.
Duma: The Duma was the legislative assembly of the Russian Empire, established in 1906 as part of Tsar Nicholas II's attempt to modernize the government and respond to growing discontent among the populace. It was intended to be a representative body that could help address issues like social unrest and demands for reform, but its actual power was limited, often leading to conflicts with the monarchy. The role of the Duma became particularly significant during the February Revolution, as it reflected the shifting dynamics of power in Russia and the decline of the Romanov dynasty.
Provisional Government: A provisional government is a temporary authority established to manage the affairs of a state during a transitional period, often following a significant political upheaval. In the context of Russia's history during 1917, it emerged after the February Revolution as a response to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, aiming to maintain order and set the stage for a more permanent government through elections. This government faced numerous challenges, including its inability to address pressing issues like land reform and its decision to continue fighting in World War I, which ultimately led to its downfall.
Soviet power: Soviet power refers to the political authority and governance established by the Bolshevik Party in Russia following the October Revolution of 1917. This term embodies the concept of a government led by workers' councils, or 'soviets,' which aimed to represent the interests of the proletariat and eliminate the existing capitalist structures, significantly reshaping the political landscape of Russia and influencing global politics.
Absolutism: Absolutism is a political doctrine and practice where a single ruler holds complete and unrestrained power over the government and its subjects. This form of governance typically emphasizes the divine right of kings, suggesting that the monarch's authority comes directly from God, which eliminates checks on their power. Absolutism significantly influenced many European monarchies, including Russia under the Romanovs, leading to a concentration of power that ultimately contributed to widespread unrest and revolution.
Worker strikes: Worker strikes are collective actions taken by employees to protest against unfair labor practices, low wages, poor working conditions, or other grievances. These strikes often serve as a means for workers to demand better treatment and can have significant implications for labor relations and political movements, particularly during times of social upheaval.
Brest-Litovsk Treaty: The Brest-Litovsk Treaty was a peace agreement signed on March 3, 1918, between the Central Powers and Soviet Russia that ended Russia's participation in World War I. This treaty had significant consequences, as it resulted in substantial territorial losses for Russia, leading to the establishment of independent states and shifting the balance of power in Eastern Europe during a time of upheaval following the February Revolution and the fall of the Romanovs.
Mensheviks: The Mensheviks were a faction within the Russian socialist movement, formed in the early 20th century, that advocated for a more moderate approach to achieving socialism compared to their rivals, the Bolsheviks. They believed in a gradual transition towards socialism through democratic means and supported collaboration with liberal groups, which distinguished them from the more radical Bolshevik ideology of immediate revolution.
Socialism: Socialism is an economic and political system where the means of production, distribution, and exchange are owned or regulated by the community as a whole. This ideology promotes the idea of collective ownership and aims to achieve a more equitable distribution of wealth, often in response to the inequalities created by capitalism. Socialism gained traction in Europe during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, influencing major political movements and events, particularly during times of social upheaval and technological change.
Autocracy: Autocracy is a system of government in which a single person or entity holds absolute power and authority, making decisions without any significant input from others. In an autocracy, political opposition is often suppressed, and the leader’s decisions are not subject to legal or constitutional constraints. This form of governance can be seen in the context of several historical events, including the dynamics of power leading up to major revolutions and regime changes.
Food shortages: Food shortages refer to a significant decrease in the availability of food supplies, often leading to hunger and malnutrition within a population. In the context of the February Revolution and the Fall of the Romanovs, food shortages were a major catalyst for social unrest and widespread dissatisfaction with the government, as people struggled to secure basic necessities amidst wartime conditions and economic instability.
Marxism: Marxism is a socio-political and economic theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, which argues that all historical developments are driven by class struggle. Central to Marxism is the idea that capitalism, characterized by private ownership of production, leads to social inequalities and class conflict, ultimately paving the way for a revolutionary transition to socialism and communism. This ideology influenced various political movements and revolutions, particularly in Russia during the early 20th century.
Vladimir Lenin: Vladimir Lenin was a revolutionary leader and the founder of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which later became the Soviet Union. He played a crucial role in the February Revolution and led the Bolshevik Revolution, fundamentally changing Russia's political landscape and promoting Marxist ideology. Lenin's leadership marked a shift from the rule of the Romanovs to a communist government, setting the stage for significant social, economic, and political changes in Russia.
Tsar Nicholas II: Tsar Nicholas II was the last emperor of Russia, ruling from 1894 until his abdication in 1917 during the February Revolution. His reign saw significant turmoil and unrest in Russia, culminating in the fall of the Romanov dynasty, as he struggled to maintain power amid social, political, and economic challenges that ultimately led to his execution.
February Revolution: The February Revolution was a pivotal event in 1917 that led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the end of the Romanov dynasty in Russia. Triggered by widespread discontent with food shortages, military failures, and social inequality, this uprising saw the working class and soldiers revolt against the autocratic regime, paving the way for a provisional government and the eventual rise of the Bolsheviks.
April Theses: The April Theses were a series of directives and proposals issued by Vladimir Lenin in April 1917, following his return to Russia from exile. They called for the immediate withdrawal of Russia from World War I, the transfer of power to the Soviets, and the implementation of radical socialist reforms. This set of ideas played a crucial role in shaping the Bolshevik agenda during the tumultuous period of revolution and civil war in Russia.