European History – 1890 to 1945
Table of Contents
Unit 4 Overview: The Course of World War I
4.1 Major Battles and Military Strategies
4.2 The Home Front and Total War
4.3 Technological Innovations in Warfare
4.4 The Entry of the United States and the War's Conclusion

💣european history – 1890 to 1945 review

4.4 The Entry of the United States and the War's Conclusion

Citation:

The United States' entry into World War I in 1917 marked a turning point. Shifting public opinion, diplomatic tensions, and economic ties to the Allies pushed America to join the fight against Germany and the Central Powers.

American troops and resources provided a crucial boost to the Allied war effort. The influx of fresh soldiers, industrial might, and economic power helped turn the tide, leading to Germany's defeat and the war's conclusion in 1918.

US Entry into World War I

Shifting Public Opinion and Diplomatic Tensions

  • Sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 by German U-boats killed 128 Americans shifted U.S. public opinion against Germany
  • Zimmermann Telegram intercepted in 1917 revealed Germany's attempt to ally with Mexico against the United States (further inflamed anti-German sentiment)
  • Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917 threatened U.S. commercial interests and freedom of the seas
  • Russian Revolution of 1917 and Russia's exit from the war increased pressure on the U.S. to join the Allies (prevent a German victory)

Economic and Ideological Factors

  • Economic ties between the United States and Allied powers created vested interest in Allied victory (loans, trade agreements)
  • President Woodrow Wilson's ideological shift from neutrality to interventionism influenced by belief in making the world "safe for democracy"
    • Wilson's evolving foreign policy stance
    • Emphasis on moral responsibility in international affairs
  • Growing sentiment among American political and business leaders favoring intervention
    • Concerns about post-war economic influence
    • Desire to shape the new world order

American Impact on the War

Military Contributions

  • Influx of fresh American troops provided significant numerical advantage to Allied forces on Western Front
    • Over 2 million American soldiers deployed by war's end
    • American Expeditionary Forces maintained operational independence under General John J. Pershing
  • Meuse-Argonne Offensive played crucial role in breaking German defenses
    • Largest and bloodiest operation in American military history
    • Involved over 1 million American soldiers
  • Implementation of convoy systems by U.S. Navy effectively countered German U-boat threat
    • Secured vital supply lines across the Atlantic
    • Reduced shipping losses by up to 90%

Economic and Morale Boost

  • American industrial and economic power enhanced Allies' war effort
    • Supplied crucial resources (steel, oil)
    • Provided weapons and ammunition (rifles, artillery)
    • Offered financial support (war bonds, loans to Allied nations)
  • American involvement boosted Allied morale and resolve
    • Psychological impact of fresh troops and resources
    • Demoralized German forces and Central Powers
  • President Wilson's Fourteen Points shaped ideological framework for post-war peace negotiations
    • Influenced creation of League of Nations
    • Emphasized principles of self-determination and open diplomacy

Conclusion of World War I

Major Offensives and Battles

  • Second Battle of the Marne (July-August 1918) marked last major German offensive and turning point of war
    • Allied forces, including Americans, successfully halted German advance
    • Demonstrated growing strength of Allied coordination
  • Hundred Days Offensive (August-November 1918) steadily pushed back German forces
    • Series of Allied attacks along Western Front
    • Led to collapse of Hindenburg Line (Germany's last major defensive position)
  • Battle of Amiens (August 1918) demonstrated effectiveness of combined arms warfare
    • Marked beginning of Germany's military decline
    • Utilized tanks, aircraft, and infantry in coordinated assault

Political and Military Collapse of Central Powers

  • German Revolution (November 1918) overthrew monarchy
    • Led to internal political instability
    • Further weakened Germany's ability to continue the war
  • Signing of separate armistices isolated Germany
    • Bulgaria (September 29, 1918)
    • Ottoman Empire (October 30, 1918)
    • Austria-Hungary (November 3, 1918)
  • Battle of Vittorio Veneto (October-November 1918) on Italian Front resulted in complete defeat of Austro-Hungarian forces
    • Led to dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Empire
    • Created power vacuum in Central Europe

Armistice and Treaty of Versailles

Armistice and Immediate Aftermath

  • Armistice signed on November 11, 1918 ended hostilities
    • Set stage for peace negotiations
    • Marked pivotal moment in world history
  • Ceasefire terms included German withdrawal from occupied territories
    • Evacuation of Rhineland
    • Surrender of naval fleet and submarines

Key Provisions of the Treaty of Versailles

  • Treaty signed on June 28, 1919 officially ended state of war between Germany and Allied Powers
  • "War Guilt Clause" (Article 231) placed sole responsibility for war on Germany
    • Led to resentment and future political instability in Germany
    • Justified reparations and punitive measures
  • Territorial changes mandated by treaty significantly altered European borders
    • Loss of Alsace-Lorraine to France
    • Creation of Polish Corridor
    • Reduction of German colonial possessions
  • Severe military restrictions imposed on Germany
    • Limitations on army size (100,000 men)
    • Prohibition of certain weapons (tanks, submarines)
  • Establishment of League of Nations represented groundbreaking attempt at international cooperation
    • Aimed to prevent future conflicts through collective security
    • United States ultimately did not join due to domestic political opposition

Long-term Consequences

  • Harsh reparations imposed on Germany totaling 132 billion gold marks
    • Crippled German economy
    • Contributed to rise of extremist political movements in interwar period (Nazi Party)
  • Redrawing of national boundaries based on principle of self-determination
    • Created new nation-states (Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia)
    • Led to ethnic tensions and future conflicts
  • Treaty's perceived harshness fueled German resentment
    • Provided propaganda material for nationalist movements
    • Undermined stability of Weimar Republic

Key Terms to Review (23)

Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty of Versailles was a peace agreement signed in 1919 that officially ended World War I, imposing significant penalties and territorial losses on Germany. Its terms aimed to prevent future conflicts but instead fueled nationalistic sentiments and resentment in Germany, contributing to the rise of extremism and the onset of World War II.
League of Nations Formation: The League of Nations Formation refers to the establishment of the League of Nations in 1920 as a result of the Paris Peace Conference following World War I. Its primary aim was to promote peace and cooperation among nations to prevent future conflicts, reflecting the desire for a new world order in the aftermath of the war. The League was envisioned as a platform for dialogue, disarmament, and resolving international disputes through collective security.
Alsace-Lorraine: Alsace-Lorraine is a region in northeastern France that was contested between France and Germany, particularly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its strategic importance and cultural identity made it a flashpoint for conflict, especially during the First World War and the subsequent Treaty of Versailles, which redefined national boundaries and national identities in Europe.
Armistice: An armistice is a formal agreement between warring parties to stop fighting and to negotiate a peace settlement. This ceasefire is essential for bringing an end to hostilities, allowing both sides to discuss terms and conditions for peace. The armistice can lead to the conclusion of a war, as was the case in World War I, where the signing marked the end of combat and set the stage for subsequent treaties.
Hundred Days Offensive: The Hundred Days Offensive was a series of major Allied offensives launched in 1918 during World War I, which marked the final phase of the war leading to the defeat of Germany. This campaign was characterized by a combination of new tactics and the use of fresh American troops, helping to break through the Hindenburg Line and forcing Germany to seek an armistice. The success of this offensive significantly contributed to the end of the war and shifted the balance of power in favor of the Allies.
Battle of Amiens: The Battle of Amiens was a significant World War I military engagement that took place from August 8 to August 12, 1918, marking the beginning of the Hundred Days Offensive. It involved a coordinated attack by British and Commonwealth forces against German positions near Amiens in France, resulting in a decisive Allied victory that contributed to the eventual conclusion of the war. This battle is often regarded as a turning point, showcasing the effectiveness of new tactics and the use of combined arms, including infantry, tanks, and aircraft.
Second Battle of the Marne: The Second Battle of the Marne was a significant battle fought during World War I from July 15 to August 5, 1918, marking a turning point in the war. It involved the last major German offensive on the Western Front and saw Allied forces, including American troops, successfully counterattacking and ultimately pushing back the German army. This battle is crucial as it led to a series of Allied victories and set the stage for the eventual conclusion of the war.
Fourteen points: The Fourteen Points were a set of principles outlined by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in January 1918, intended to guide peace negotiations after World War I. These points emphasized self-determination, open diplomacy, and the establishment of a League of Nations to ensure lasting peace. Wilson's vision sought to address the causes of the war and prevent future conflicts by promoting democratic governance and cooperative international relations.
Convoy systems: Convoy systems were a naval strategy employed during World War I and World War II to protect merchant ships by grouping them together and providing them with military escort. This method significantly reduced the risks of attacks from submarines and enemy vessels, ensuring safer passage of troops and supplies. The adoption of convoy systems became crucial as nations, especially the United States and Britain, sought to maintain their supply lines across the Atlantic amidst growing threats from enemy forces.
American Expeditionary Forces: The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) was the United States Army force deployed to Europe during World War I, led by General John J. Pershing. The AEF played a critical role in bolstering the Allied Powers against the Central Powers, marking a significant shift in the war's dynamics and contributing to its eventual conclusion.
Meuse-Argonne Offensive: The Meuse-Argonne Offensive was a major military campaign during World War I that took place from September 26 to November 11, 1918, as part of the final Allied push to defeat Germany. It was the largest offensive undertaken by American forces in the war and aimed to break through German defenses along the Western Front, contributing significantly to the eventual conclusion of hostilities.
War bonds: War bonds are debt securities issued by a government to finance military operations during times of war. They serve as a means for citizens to support the war effort financially while also allowing the government to raise necessary funds for military expenditures. War bonds became particularly significant during World War I and World War II, when they were marketed as a patriotic duty and a way for civilians to contribute to the national defense.
Lusitania Incident: The Lusitania Incident refers to the sinking of the British ocean liner RMS Lusitania by a German U-boat on May 7, 1915, during World War I, resulting in the deaths of 1,198 passengers and crew. This tragic event heightened tensions between the United States and Germany and played a crucial role in shaping American public opinion toward entering the war.
Zimmermann Telegram: The Zimmermann Telegram was a secret diplomatic communication sent by the German Empire to Mexico on January 16, 1917, proposing a military alliance against the United States during World War I. The revelation of this telegram fueled anti-German sentiment in the U.S. and was a significant factor leading to America's entry into the war, marking a turning point in the conflict's dynamics and ultimately contributing to its conclusion.
Woodrow Wilson: Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, serving from 1913 to 1921. He is best known for his leadership during World War I and his vision for a post-war peace that emphasized self-determination, democracy, and the establishment of the League of Nations. His ideas greatly influenced the course of international relations and the conclusion of the war.
Russian Revolution: The Russian Revolution refers to a series of events in 1917 that led to the overthrow of the Tsarist autocracy and the establishment of a communist government in Russia. This pivotal moment reshaped the political landscape of the country and had significant implications for global politics, particularly in relation to World War I and the involvement of other nations.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: Unrestricted submarine warfare is a type of naval warfare in which submarines sink vessels without warning, including both military and civilian ships. This tactic was notably used by Germany during World War I and significantly influenced naval strategies and international relations, especially regarding the entry of nations into the conflict and the conclusion of the war.
Nazi Party: The Nazi Party, officially known as the National Socialist German Workers' Party, was a far-right political group that emerged in Germany during the early 20th century. It gained prominence in the 1920s and 1930s under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, advocating for extreme nationalism, anti-Semitism, and totalitarianism. The party played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of Germany during the Weimar Republic, contributing to the rise of extremism and ultimately leading the country into World War II.
Polish Corridor: The Polish Corridor was a strip of land that granted Poland access to the Baltic Sea, created by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. This territory separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany and became a significant point of contention between Poland and Germany in the interwar period, influencing geopolitical tensions leading up to World War II.
German Revolution: The German Revolution was a series of events that took place in 1918-1919, leading to the overthrow of the German monarchy and the establishment of the Weimar Republic. It marked the end of the German Empire and was triggered by military defeat in World War I, widespread social unrest, and demands for democratic reforms. This revolution significantly influenced the subsequent Treaty of Versailles negotiations and shaped the geopolitical landscape of post-war Europe.
Reparations: Reparations refer to the compensation required from a country for damages caused during war, often involving financial payments, material goods, or other forms of restitution. In the aftermath of World War I, reparations became a contentious issue, particularly concerning Germany, which was held responsible for the war's devastation under the Treaty of Versailles and faced significant economic challenges as a result.
League of Nations: The League of Nations was an international organization founded after World War I, aimed at promoting peace and cooperation among countries to prevent future conflicts. Established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, the League sought to encourage collective security and diplomacy, ultimately influencing responses to rising fascism and economic instability in Europe.
War guilt clause: The war guilt clause, officially known as Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, assigned blame for World War I solely to Germany and its allies. This clause served as a foundation for imposing heavy reparations and restrictions on Germany, significantly influencing post-war politics and the nation’s sense of national identity.