15.1 Integrating Ethical Theories and Applied Ethics

Ethical theories provide frameworks for moral reasoning, but applying them to real-world situations reveals their complexity. Deontology, utilitarianism, virtue ethics, care ethics, and existentialism offer different perspectives on what makes actions right or wrong.

Integrating these theories with practical ethics requires nuanced interpretation and moral imagination. The interplay between theory and practice cultivates practical wisdom, helping us navigate complex ethical dilemmas and refine our understanding of moral principles.

Key Ethical Theories

Deontology and Consequentialism

• Deontological ethics focuses on the intrinsic rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of those actions
  • Kant's Categorical Imperative is a key principle in deontological ethics
    • It states that one should act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law
• Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism where the most ethical choice is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number
  • Act utilitarianism looks at individual actions, while rule utilitarianism examines general rules
    • Act utilitarianism evaluates the consequences of each individual act and chooses the act that produces the greatest good
    • Rule utilitarianism evaluates the consequences of having everyone follow a particular rule and chooses the rule that produces the greatest good if universally followed

Virtue Ethics and Ethics of Care

• Virtue ethics emphasizes moral character rather than rules or consequences, asserting that virtuous character traits like compassion, courage, and integrity are key to ethical behavior
  • Aristotle's ethics is an influential example of virtue ethics
    • He argued that the cultivation of moral virtues, such as courage, temperance, and justice, is essential for living a good life and achieving eudaimonia (flourishing)
• The ethics of care builds on the idea that care should be a foundation for ethical action, emphasizing the interdependence of people and the importance of attending to others' needs
  • Carol Gilligan's work is central to the development of care ethics
    • She critiqued traditional moral theories as overly focused on abstract principles and argued for an alternative approach grounded in the real experiences of care and responsibility in human relationships

Existentialist Ethics

• Existentialist ethics stresses individual existence, freedom, and responsibility, claiming that there are no universal, objective moral rules
  • Existentialists like Sartre argue that humans create the meanings of their own lives
    • Sartre's concept of "existence precedes essence" holds that humans first exist and then define their own essence or nature through the choices they make
  • Existentialist ethics emphasizes authenticity, which involves taking responsibility for one's choices and actions without relying on external standards or excuses
    • It stresses the importance of individuals engaging in moral deliberation and committing to their decisions, even in the face of uncertainty or absurdity

Ethical Theories in Practice

Applying Deontology and Utilitarianism

• Applying deontological ethics to a case study involves identifying the relevant moral rules or duties and determining whether an action adheres to or violates those duties, regardless of outcomes
  • For example, a deontologist might argue against lying in business even if it would maximize profits
    • Kant's ethics would consider lying to be wrong because it fails to respect persons as ends in themselves and cannot be universalized without contradiction
• A utilitarian approach to applied ethics seeks to determine and compare the overall positive and negative consequences of different courses of action
  • In medical ethics, a utilitarian calculation might favor an action that improves public health over one that protects individual autonomy
    • For instance, utilitarianism could potentially justify compulsory vaccination policies if they prevent more harm (spread of disease) than they cause (violation of individual liberty)

Virtue Ethics and Care Ethics in Context

• Using virtue ethics in a contemporary context requires identifying what course of action best embodies moral virtues or what a morally exemplary person would do
  • A virtue ethicist considering environmental issues might ask what actions best express virtues like compassion, humility, and respect for nature
    • Virtues of moderation and stewardship could guide individuals to limit consumption and live sustainably
• The ethics of care can be applied by considering how actions impact the web of social relationships and responsibilities
  • In the context of elderly care, an ethics of care perspective would prioritize maintaining relationships and meeting the needs of vulnerable individuals
    • This could involve finding ways to provide care that preserve the dignity and autonomy of elderly individuals while still attending to their physical and emotional needs

Existentialist Ethics in Practice

• Existentialist ethics can be used to emphasize the individual's responsibility to create meaning and value in specific situations
  • An existentialist approach to a political dilemma would stress the need for individuals to take a stand and commit to their choices in the face of ambiguity
    • For example, in considering whether to participate in a protest against injustice, existentialism would hold that the individual must decide based on their own values and conscience rather than deferring to authority or conforming to the crowd
• Existentialist ethics can also highlight the importance of authenticity and avoiding self-deception or bad faith
  • In a situation of personal conflict, an existentialist view would emphasize acknowledging and confronting one's freedom and responsibility rather than making excuses or blaming circumstances
    • This could involve honestly examining one's motives, admitting mistakes, and striving to align one's actions with one's professed values

Evaluating Ethical Frameworks

Strengths and Limitations of Deontology and Utilitarianism

• Deontological ethics provides clear, universal guidelines but may struggle with complex situations involving conflicting obligations
  • It can also lead to conclusions that seem counterintuitive if negative consequences are not considered
    • For example, the deontological prohibition on lying could make it difficult to justify lying to protect someone from serious harm
• Utilitarianism offers a clear framework for decision-making based on promoting overall welfare but has difficulty incorporating individual rights
  • It can justify actions that seem unfair or unjust to individuals in the minority
    • A utilitarian calculation could potentially sanction sacrificing an innocent person to harvest their organs if doing so would save multiple lives

Assessing Virtue Ethics and Ethics of Care

• Virtue ethics focuses on character development and allows flexibility in responding to context, but it provides less clear action guidance
  • It may not give sufficient weight to consequences
    • Emphasizing virtues like loyalty or generosity could lead to prioritizing those close to us over impartially maximizing good consequences
• The ethics of care valuably highlights the moral salience of attending to and meeting the needs of particular others for whom we take responsibility
  • However, it can overlook impartiality and fairness, and may not provide clear guidance for a hierarchy of moral obligations
    • Close personal relationships could be privileged over more distant strangers, even if the needs of the strangers are greater

Evaluating Existentialist Ethics

• Existentialist ethics emphasizes the importance of individuals taking responsibility for their choices but provides little guidance for those choices
  • It ignores the broader social context shaping ethical decision-making
    • Stressing individual freedom and responsibility could neglect how systemic inequalities and power structures constrain the options available to marginalized groups
• The existentialist focus on individual authenticity and commitment may not adequately address the need for moral norms to coordinate social interactions
  • Taken to extremes, existentialism could justify unchecked moral subjectivism or nihilism
    • If all value is seen as created by individual choice, it may be difficult to critique the choices of others or to establish shared ethical standards

Theory and Practice Interplay

Complexity and Limitations

• Ethical theories provide frameworks for moral reasoning and decision-making, but applying them to real-world situations reveals their complexity and potential limitations
  • Engaging with this interplay cultivates practical wisdom
    • For example, considering the implications of both deontology and utilitarianism for a public policy issue can reveal the tensions between competing ethical priorities and the need for nuanced judgment
• Theoretical ethical principles and rules may conflict in practice, requiring careful analysis and judgment to resolve
  • Considering different theoretical perspectives can illuminate these tensions
    • A situation involving a promise to maintain confidentiality and a duty to prevent harm may pit deontological and utilitarian considerations against each other, necessitating a weighing of the conflicting obligations

Contextual Sensitivity and Moral Imagination

• Applying ethics involves more than just identifying the relevant rule or principle; it requires nuanced interpretation of situations and moral imagination to generate creative solutions
  • For instance, a utilitarian analysis of lying to protect someone from harm would need to consider the situational details and potential long-term consequences rather than simply calculating aggregate welfare
• Ethical theories can help clarify values and sharpen moral thinking, but they must be combined with contextual understanding and sensitivity to the details of situations
  • Effective practical ethics requires integrating conceptual knowledge and situational perception
    • Applying virtue ethics to a business dilemma would involve not just invoking general virtues but also examining the specific organizational culture, stakeholder needs, and potential ripple effects of different choices

The Dialectical Relationship

• The relationship between theory and practice in ethics is dialectical: theories inform and guide practice, but practice also informs and modifies theory
  • Real-world experience applying ethics should recursively shape one's understanding of ethical theories
    • Grappling with moral complexity in concrete cases can lead to refinements or revisions of theoretical frameworks, such as acknowledging the need for prima facie rather than absolute duties in deontological thinking
• Engaging in practical ethical reasoning develops skills and habits that enhance theoretical understanding, and theoretical study provides conceptual tools for navigating real-world moral challenges
  • The back-and-forth between theory and practice is a key part of moral development and the growth of ethical expertise
    • For example, a health care professional's clinical experience with end-of-life decision-making can enrich their grasp of ethical principles around autonomy and beneficence, which can in turn improve the quality of their care for future patients