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Ethics
Table of Contents
Unit 13 Overview: Ethics in a Global Context
13.1 Cultural Diversity and Ethical Pluralism
13.2 Global Ethics and International Relations
13.3 Ethics of War and Peace

🥸ethics review

13.2 Global Ethics and International Relations

Citation:

Global ethics in international relations grapples with tough moral questions on a world stage. From just war theory to humanitarian intervention, nations face complex choices about using force and protecting human rights.

Economic inequality, climate change, and global health crises further complicate the ethical landscape. Balancing national interests with global responsibilities, policymakers must navigate competing principles in an interconnected world.

Ethical Issues in International Relations

The Use of Military Force and Violence

  • Just war theory provides a framework for evaluating the ethical justification for war, including criteria such as just cause, right intention, and proportionality
  • Humanitarian intervention involves the use of military force to protect civilians from severe human rights abuses, such as genocide or ethnic cleansing
  • The responsibility to protect doctrine asserts that the international community has a moral obligation to intervene in cases of mass atrocities when a state fails to protect its own citizens
  • The use of force raises ethical concerns about the loss of civilian life, the destruction of infrastructure, and the long-term consequences of conflict

Global Poverty and Inequality

  • Extreme poverty affects millions of people worldwide, with many lacking access to basic necessities such as food, clean water, and healthcare
  • Economic inequality between nations is vast, with a small number of wealthy countries consuming a disproportionate share of global resources
  • Debates exist over the extent of moral obligations that wealthy nations have to provide aid and development assistance to poorer countries
  • Some argue for a cosmopolitan ethical framework that prioritizes the needs of the global poor, while others emphasize national self-interest and the importance of domestic priorities

Human Rights and Global Health

  • Governments and non-state actors continue to perpetrate severe human rights abuses, including torture, arbitrary detention, and extrajudicial killings
  • The international community faces challenges in effectively responding to and preventing human rights violations, particularly in cases where abuses are committed by powerful nations or allies
  • The treatment of refugees, asylum seekers, and displaced persons raises ethical questions about the moral responsibilities of nations to provide protection and assistance
  • Global health disparities are stark, with many in developing countries lacking access to basic healthcare services and essential medicines
  • The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted ethical issues surrounding global health, including vaccine nationalism, the sharing of medical resources, and the prioritization of vulnerable populations

Environmental Ethics and Climate Change

  • Human activity, particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, is driving global climate change and environmental degradation
  • The impacts of climate change, such as rising sea levels, more frequent natural disasters, and shifts in agricultural patterns, disproportionately affect poor and vulnerable communities
  • Debates exist over the ethical duties of nations and individuals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to assist affected communities in adapting to a changing climate
  • Intergenerational justice and the rights of future generations are central considerations in addressing long-term environmental challenges

Ethics in Foreign Policy

Ethical Constraints and Justifications

  • Ethical principles, such as respect for human rights and the prohibition on the use of torture, can serve as constraints on foreign policy options, ruling out courses of action that violate these norms
  • Ethical arguments can also be used to justify controversial foreign policy decisions, such as humanitarian interventions or the provision of aid to oppressive regimes
  • The Responsibility to Protect doctrine, for example, asserts a moral obligation for the international community to intervene in cases of genocide or other mass atrocities
  • Foreign aid and development assistance are often justified on ethical grounds, with the argument that wealthy nations have a duty to help alleviate global poverty and suffering

Ethical Dilemmas and Trade-Offs

  • Foreign policy decision-makers often face competing ethical principles that can lead to dilemmas and trade-offs
  • The need to balance national self-interest with global moral obligations is a common tension, such as when considering whether to intervene in a conflict or provide aid to a strategically important but repressive regime
  • Short-term benefits, such as economic gains or security cooperation, may be weighed against long-term consequences, such as the erosion of human rights or the fueling of corruption
  • The sale of arms to Saudi Arabia by the United States and other Western nations, for example, has been criticized on ethical grounds due to Saudi Arabia's human rights record and involvement in the conflict in Yemen

Institutional and Individual Influences

  • Domestic political considerations and public opinion on ethical issues can shape foreign policy choices, particularly in democratic societies where leaders are accountable to voters
  • The personal moral beliefs and values of individual leaders and policymakers can also influence the direction of a nation's foreign policy
  • Institutionalized mechanisms, such as human rights monitoring bodies and international courts, can embed ethical considerations into foreign policy processes
  • The International Criminal Court, for example, seeks to hold individuals accountable for war crimes, genocide, and other severe violations of international law
  • Non-governmental organizations, such as Human Rights Watch and Transparency International, play an important role in advocating for ethical foreign policies and holding governments accountable

Globalization and Ethics

Economic Globalization and Inequality

  • The increased economic interdependence brought about by globalization has raised questions about the fair distribution of benefits and burdens
  • Multinational corporations have been criticized for exploiting workers in developing countries, often with poor labor standards and low wages
  • The "race to the bottom" phenomenon, where countries compete to attract foreign investment by lowering regulations and taxes, can lead to the erosion of worker protections and environmental standards
  • Economic globalization has exacerbated global inequality, with the benefits of growth and trade often accruing disproportionately to already wealthy nations and individuals
  • The moral obligations of the global rich towards the global poor, such as the extent of duties to provide aid and reform global economic institutions, are a central debate in global economic ethics

Cultural Globalization and Homogenization

  • The spread of Western values, norms, and cultural products through globalization has raised concerns about cultural imperialism and the loss of traditional ways of life
  • The dominance of the English language and the influence of American popular culture, for example, are sometimes seen as threats to cultural diversity and local identities
  • At the same time, cultural exchange and the sharing of ideas and practices across borders can promote understanding and enrich societies
  • The rise of global media and communication technologies has created new opportunities for cross-cultural dialogue and solidarity around shared ethical causes

Transnational Challenges and Collective Action

  • Globalization has facilitated the emergence and spread of transnational challenges that require collective action and shared ethical frameworks to address effectively
  • Terrorism, organized crime, disease outbreaks (such as the COVID-19 pandemic), and climate change are examples of issues that transcend national borders and demand coordinated global responses
  • The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, for example, asserts that all nations have a shared duty to address climate change, but with different obligations based on their level of development and historical emissions
  • Advancements in transportation and communication technologies have increased global interconnectedness, creating new ethical obligations and responsibilities towards distant others
  • The ability to witness and respond to suffering and injustice in real-time, such as through social media, has expanded the scope of moral concern beyond national boundaries

International Organizations and Global Ethics

Setting Norms and Standards

  • The United Nations plays a central role in establishing global ethical norms and standards through declarations, treaties, and resolutions
  • The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948, outlines a set of fundamental rights and freedoms that all individuals are entitled to, regardless of nationality or background
  • The Sustainable Development Goals, a set of 17 global targets adopted by the UN in 2015, represent a shared ethical framework for advancing human well-being and protecting the planet
  • Other international organizations, such as the International Labour Organization and the World Health Organization, develop standards and guidelines in their respective areas of expertise

Enforcement and Accountability Mechanisms

  • International courts and tribunals, such as the International Criminal Court and ad hoc tribunals for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia, seek to enforce international law and hold individuals accountable for severe violations of global ethics
  • The prosecution of war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity represents an effort to uphold universal moral norms and deter future atrocities
  • The effectiveness of these accountability mechanisms is often limited by political considerations, resource constraints, and the lack of universal jurisdiction
  • Regional organizations, such as the European Court of Human Rights and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, provide additional avenues for the enforcement of ethical standards and the promotion of human rights within their respective regions

Challenges and Limitations

  • The effectiveness of international organizations in promoting global ethics is often constrained by the competing interests and priorities of member states
  • The United Nations Security Council, for example, can be paralyzed by the veto power of its permanent members, limiting its ability to respond to pressing ethical crises
  • International economic institutions, such as the World Trade Organization and the International Monetary Fund, are often criticized for prioritizing the interests of powerful nations and corporations over the needs of developing countries and marginalized communities
  • The voluntary nature of participation in and compliance with international agreements and institutions can limit their impact and reach
  • Non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty International and Doctors Without Borders, play an important role in advocating for global ethical causes and providing humanitarian assistance, but their efforts are often insufficient to fully address the scale and complexity of global challenges
  • Despite these limitations, international organizations and global governance frameworks, such as the Paris Agreement on climate change, represent important progress in establishing shared ethical commitments and mobilizing collective action to address pressing global issues

Key Terms to Review (16)

Peter Singer: Peter Singer is a contemporary Australian philosopher best known for his work in bioethics and his advocacy for animal rights and utilitarian ethics. His influential ideas challenge traditional views on morality, particularly regarding the treatment of animals, the environment, and issues surrounding healthcare and reproductive ethics.
Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement is a landmark international treaty adopted in 2015, aiming to address climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. This agreement connects the urgent need for collective action on climate change to ethical considerations in global business practices and international relations, emphasizing accountability and cooperation among nations.
Amartya Sen: Amartya Sen is an Indian economist and philosopher known for his work on welfare economics, development theory, and social justice. His contributions emphasize the importance of individual capabilities and freedoms in evaluating social welfare, shifting focus from traditional economic metrics like income to broader measures that encompass quality of life and human well-being. Sen's theories have significant implications for understanding justice, fairness, and global ethics in a rapidly changing world.
Responsibility to Protect: The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is a global political commitment that aims to prevent genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. It emphasizes that sovereign states have a duty to protect their populations from such atrocities, and if they fail to do so, the international community has the right to intervene through diplomatic, humanitarian, or military means. This principle bridges the gap between human rights and global governance, highlighting the interconnectedness of ethical considerations and state responsibilities.
Dilemma of double effect: The dilemma of double effect is a philosophical principle that addresses situations where an action has two effects: one intended and good, and the other unintended and potentially harmful. This concept helps in evaluating moral decisions, especially in scenarios involving global ethics and international relations, as it allows individuals to assess the ethical implications of actions that may lead to both positive and negative outcomes.
Humanitarian intervention: Humanitarian intervention refers to the use of military force by one or more countries in another country's territory to prevent or stop widespread suffering or human rights violations. This concept is often debated, as it sits at the intersection of moral responsibility and state sovereignty, raising questions about when it is justifiable to intervene. The discussions surrounding humanitarian intervention often involve considerations of global inequality, the ethics of international relations, and the morality surrounding war and peace.
Global justice: Global justice refers to the concept of fairness and moral considerations that transcend national boundaries, focusing on the rights and well-being of individuals worldwide. This idea encompasses various issues, including economic inequality, human rights violations, and environmental sustainability, advocating for a fair distribution of resources and opportunities across the globe.
Power dynamics: Power dynamics refers to the ways in which power is distributed and exercised within a given context, influencing relationships, interactions, and decisions among individuals or groups. This concept is crucial for understanding how authority, influence, and resources shape international relations and ethical considerations on a global scale.
Just War Theory: Just War Theory is a philosophical framework that outlines the moral principles governing the justification for war and the ethical conduct during warfare. It emphasizes that war can only be justified under certain conditions, such as self-defense or protection of the innocent, and that even in war, combatants must adhere to ethical standards regarding the treatment of non-combatants and the proportionality of force used.
Distributive Justice: Distributive justice refers to the ethical principle that addresses the fair allocation of resources and benefits among individuals and groups in society. It focuses on how goods, opportunities, and responsibilities are distributed, seeking to achieve an equitable balance between individuals' needs and contributions. This concept is crucial for understanding issues of fairness, equality, and human rights in various contexts, including economic systems, healthcare access, and international relations.
Cosmopolitanism: Cosmopolitanism is the philosophical and ethical perspective that emphasizes the moral obligation individuals have to all of humanity, transcending national, cultural, or political boundaries. It promotes the idea that every person is a member of a global community, fostering respect for diversity and shared human values. This viewpoint influences international relations by advocating for global cooperation and understanding among nations and cultures.
Global governance: Global governance refers to the ways international affairs are managed across countries, involving various actors such as states, international organizations, and non-governmental organizations. It encompasses the processes and structures that facilitate cooperation, rule-making, and policy implementation at a global level to address issues that transcend national borders, like climate change, security, and human rights. This interconnectedness highlights the ethical dimensions of international relations, where collective action is often necessary to promote global well-being.
Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism is the belief that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture rather than be judged against the criteria of another culture. This perspective emphasizes understanding and tolerance of cultural differences and raises important questions about ethics, morality, and human rights in a global context.
Moral hazard: Moral hazard refers to a situation where one party takes risks because they do not have to bear the full consequences of their actions, often because another party will incur the costs. This can create ethical dilemmas, as the party taking the risks may act irresponsibly, knowing that they will not face the negative repercussions. It plays a critical role in discussions about accountability and ethical behavior in both personal and organizational contexts.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a foundational international document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, outlining the fundamental human rights that must be universally protected. It serves as a common standard for all nations, promoting the inherent dignity, equality, and rights of every individual. The UDHR addresses various aspects of human rights, highlighting the interconnectedness of political, civil, economic, social, and cultural rights that are essential for global justice and equality.
Ethical consumerism: Ethical consumerism is the practice of purchasing products and services that align with one's ethical values, often focusing on sustainability, fair trade, and humane treatment of workers. It reflects a growing awareness among consumers about the social and environmental impacts of their buying choices, pushing companies to adopt more responsible practices. By prioritizing ethical considerations in consumption, individuals can contribute to positive change in society and influence global markets.