Non-Western civilizations developed unique environmental practices to thrive in diverse ecosystems. From Mayan terracing to Angkor's irrigation networks, these societies balanced resource use with sustainability. Indigenous communities relied on traditional ecological knowledge to maintain harmony with nature.
Environmental factors played a crucial role in the rise and fall of civilizations. The Mayan collapse was linked to deforestation and drought, while Angkor's downfall involved water management issues. Nomadic societies adapted to harsh environments through mobility, indigenous knowledge, and social structures that promoted resilience.
Environmental Practices and Sustainability in Non-Western Civilizations
Environmental practices of non-Western civilizations
- Mayan civilization
- Practiced intensive agriculture using raised fields and terracing to maximize crop yields (maize, beans, squash)
- Engaged in deforestation to clear land for agriculture and obtain construction materials (limestone)
- Developed complex water management systems with reservoirs and canals to control water flow and prevent flooding
- Angkor civilization
- Constructed extensive irrigation networks and employed advanced water management techniques to support agriculture (barays, canals)
- Relied heavily on rice cultivation as the primary agricultural practice to feed the population
- Cleared forests for construction projects and to obtain fuel for cooking and manufacturing (sandstone, laterite)
- Indigenous societies in the Americas
- Practiced sustainable hunting and gathering, taking only what was needed and allowing resources to replenish (bison, salmon)
- Engaged in small-scale agriculture using techniques like crop rotation and intercropping to maintain soil fertility (maize, squash, beans)
- Used controlled burns to manage ecosystems, stimulate plant growth, and create habitat for game animals (prairies, forests)
- African civilizations
- Adopted pastoralism and nomadic lifestyles in arid regions to adapt to limited water resources (Maasai, Fulani)
- Developed agroforestry systems that integrated crops and trees to optimize land use and provide multiple benefits (coffee, cacao, kola)
- Practiced terrace farming in mountainous areas to prevent soil erosion and maximize agricultural productivity (Konso, Dogon)
Sustainable strategies of indigenous societies
- Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)
- Accumulated knowledge of local ecosystems and their management based on generations of observations and experiences
- Passed down through generations via oral traditions, stories, and cultural practices to ensure continuity and preservation
- Sustainable hunting and fishing practices
- Selectively harvested animals based on age, sex, and season to maintain healthy population structures (caribou, salmon)
- Avoided overharvesting to ensure long-term stability of animal populations and prevent resource depletion
- Agroecological practices
- Implemented polyculture systems that promoted biodiversity and reduced vulnerability to pests and diseases (milpa, chagra)
- Utilized natural pest control methods (companion planting) and organic fertilizers (compost, manure) to maintain ecosystem balance
- Practiced crop rotation to maintain soil fertility, prevent nutrient depletion, and control weeds and pests
- Community-based resource management
- Made collective decisions and shared resources equitably among community members to ensure sustainability and social cohesion
- Established sacred groves and other protected areas to conserve biodiversity and maintain spiritual connections to the land (kaya forests, sacred lakes)
Environmental Factors and Societal Dynamics
Environmental factors in civilization collapse
- Mayan civilization
- Depended on a fragile tropical ecosystem that was vulnerable to environmental disturbances
- Experienced deforestation that led to soil erosion, decreased agricultural productivity, and loss of biodiversity
- Faced prolonged droughts that caused water scarcity, crop failures, and food shortages (Terminal Classic Period)
- Suffered from environmental degradation that contributed to social unrest, political instability, and eventual collapse
- Angkor civilization
- Relied heavily on an extensive water management system that required constant maintenance and repair
- Faced sedimentation and clogging of irrigation channels due to deforestation and soil erosion, reducing agricultural efficiency
- Experienced monsoon variability and extreme weather events (floods, droughts) that affected agricultural output and infrastructure
- Overextended resources and infrastructure, leading to increased vulnerability to environmental and social stressors
Ecological adaptations of nomadic societies
- Mobility as an adaptation to variable environments
- Followed seasonal migration patterns to access resources (water, pasture) and avoid overgrazing in any one area
- Demonstrated flexibility in resource use based on availability and environmental conditions, adjusting strategies as needed
- Indigenous knowledge of rangeland management
- Implemented rotational grazing systems to allow pasture recovery and prevent degradation (transhumance)
- Monitored forage quality and quantity to ensure sustainable use and maintain livestock health
- Used fire to stimulate grass growth, control woody vegetation, and create mosaics of habitats (savanna, steppe)
- Adaptations to arid and semi-arid environments
- Employed efficient water management techniques, such as water harvesting (cisterns, fog nets) and storage (sand dams)
- Raised drought-resistant livestock breeds (camels, goats) and employed adaptive grazing strategies (split herding)
- Utilized desert plants and other marginal resources for food, medicine, and crafts (acacia, agave)
- Social and cultural adaptations
- Maintained kinship networks and reciprocal relationships for resource sharing and risk reduction (Bedouin, Sami)
- Developed customary laws and institutions for regulating resource access, use, and conflict resolution (eldership, councils)
- Held spiritual beliefs and practices that emphasized harmony with the environment and respect for nature (animism, shamanism)