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English 9
Table of Contents
Unit 8 Overview: Argumentative Writing and Persuasive Techniques
8.1 Structure of an Argument
8.2 Rhetorical Strategies and Persuasive Techniques
8.3 Using Evidence and Citations in Arguments
8.4 Counterarguments and Rebuttals

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8.3 Using Evidence and Citations in Arguments

Citation:

Gathering evidence is crucial for building strong arguments. It involves identifying key points, finding reliable sources, and assessing relevance. Proper integration of evidence through paraphrasing, summarizing, and quoting strengthens your writing and supports your claims.

Citing sources correctly prevents plagiarism and gives credit to original authors. Understanding different citation formats and evaluating evidence quality ensures your arguments are well-supported and credible. This skill is essential for academic and professional writing.

Gathering and Integrating Evidence

Evidence gathering for arguments

  • Identify the main points of your argument
    • Determine what claims need to be supported by evidence (thesis statement, topic sentences)
  • Locate reliable sources
    • Find information from academic journals, reputable news outlets (New York Times, Wall Street Journal), and scholarly books
    • Avoid sources with bias (personal blogs), outdated information, or lack of expertise
  • Assess the relevance of evidence to your argument
    • Choose evidence that directly supports your claims (statistics, expert opinions, case studies)
    • Ensure the evidence is closely related to the topic and strengthens your position
  • Evaluate the credibility of sources
    • Consider the author's qualifications and expertise in the subject matter
    • Check for peer review or editorial oversight to ensure accuracy and reliability
    • Verify the accuracy of information through cross-referencing with other reputable sources

Integration of evidence in writing

  • Paraphrasing
    • Restate the main idea of the source in your own words while maintaining the original meaning
    • Adapt the language and structure to fit seamlessly into your writing
    • Use paraphrasing to provide context or explain complex ideas (scientific concepts, historical events)
  • Summarizing
    • Condense the main points of a longer passage or article, focusing on the key ideas and conclusions
    • Use summarizing to provide an overview of a source or to highlight the most relevant information (research findings, policy recommendations)
  • Direct quotations
    • Use the exact words from the source, enclosed in quotation marks, to preserve the original author's voice
    • Choose quotations that are powerful, concise, and directly support your argument ("Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country" - John F. Kennedy)
    • Integrate quotations smoothly into your own writing, using signal phrases (According to..., As stated by...) and proper punctuation
  • Maintain a balance between your own voice and the evidence
    • Use evidence to support your arguments, not to replace your own ideas and analysis
    • Provide your own interpretation and insights to demonstrate your understanding of the evidence

Citing Sources and Evaluating Evidence Quality

Citation formats and plagiarism prevention

  • MLA (Modern Language Association) format
    • In-text citations: (Author's Last Name Page Number) (Smith 24)
    • Works Cited page: List sources alphabetically by author's last name
  • APA (American Psychological Association) format
    • In-text citations: (Author's Last Name, Year, p. Page Number) (Johnson, 2019, p. 45)
    • Reference page: List sources alphabetically by author's last name
  • Include all necessary information for each source
    • Author, title, publication date, publisher, and URL (if applicable)
  • Ensure consistency and accuracy in formatting
    • Use the appropriate style guide and follow its rules consistently throughout the paper
    • Double-check citations and references for errors to avoid accidental plagiarism

Evaluation of evidence quality

  • Assess the strength of the evidence
    • Consider the methodologies used in studies or experiments (sample size, control groups, data analysis techniques)
    • Look for evidence that is well-supported by data and free from logical fallacies (hasty generalizations, false causality)
  • Determine the relevance of the evidence to your specific argument
    • Ensure that the evidence directly addresses your claims and supports your thesis
    • Avoid using evidence that is only tangentially related to your topic or does not contribute to your argument
  • Consider counterarguments and contradictory evidence
    • Address evidence that may seem to contradict your argument (opposing viewpoints, alternative explanations)
    • Explain why your evidence is more compelling or relevant in light of the counterarguments
  • Use evidence judiciously
    • Select the most powerful and relevant evidence to support your key points
    • Avoid overloading your argument with excessive or redundant evidence that may detract from your main message

Key Terms to Review (16)

Topic sentence: A topic sentence is a clear and concise statement that summarizes the main idea of a paragraph, serving as a guide for the reader. It establishes the focus of the paragraph and connects to the overall purpose of the writing, helping to convey the writer's voice and style while providing a foundation for supporting evidence and structure.
Counterargument: A counterargument is an opposing viewpoint or argument presented in response to an original claim, aiming to challenge its validity. It plays a crucial role in debates and discussions, as it not only acknowledges differing perspectives but also strengthens the original argument by anticipating objections and providing rebuttals. This back-and-forth enhances critical thinking and helps in refining one's position on an issue.
Claim: A claim is a statement or assertion that expresses a point of view, belief, or argument that can be supported with evidence. It serves as the foundation of any argument, guiding the direction of reasoning and analysis. A claim needs to be backed up by relevant evidence, and its effectiveness often depends on the use of rhetorical strategies, counterarguments, and the overall structure of the argument.
Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning is a logical process where general conclusions are drawn from specific observations or instances. This method often involves recognizing patterns and making broader generalizations based on collected evidence, which can be especially useful in forming arguments and supporting claims. By using inductive reasoning, one can create a foundation for future predictions or hypotheses that are grounded in observed data.
Rhetorical appeal: Rhetorical appeal refers to the persuasive strategies used by speakers and writers to convince their audience. It encompasses three main types: ethos, pathos, and logos, each targeting different aspects of the audience's perception. These appeals are essential in crafting effective arguments, as they help to engage the audience's emotions, build credibility, and present logical reasoning.
Target audience: The target audience refers to the specific group of people that a writer aims to reach and engage with their message, whether it be in persuasive, informative, or narrative writing. Understanding the target audience helps writers tailor their content, tone, and style to effectively connect with readers and achieve their purpose. Recognizing this group’s interests, demographics, and preferences is crucial for successful communication.
Deductive Reasoning: Deductive reasoning is a logical process where conclusions are drawn from general principles or premises to reach a specific conclusion. This method starts with a general statement and applies it to a specific case, ensuring that if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. It plays a crucial role in constructing arguments and utilizing evidence effectively.
Apa style: APA style is a set of rules and guidelines established by the American Psychological Association for writing and citing sources in research papers. It emphasizes clarity, precision, and proper attribution of ideas, making it essential for academic writing in psychology and other social sciences. Understanding APA style helps writers properly format their work, cite sources correctly, and present information in a structured manner that enhances credibility and authority.
Straw man fallacy: A straw man fallacy occurs when someone misrepresents or oversimplifies an argument in order to make it easier to attack or refute. This tactic distracts from the actual argument by focusing on a distorted version of it, making it seem like the original argument has been effectively countered. Recognizing this fallacy is crucial for maintaining logical consistency and addressing the real issues at hand.
Thesis statement: A thesis statement is a concise summary of the main point or claim of a piece of writing, usually presented in the introduction. It serves as a roadmap for the reader, outlining what to expect in the text and guiding the direction of the argument or analysis.
Summarizing: Summarizing is the process of condensing a larger piece of information into its essential points, capturing the main ideas while omitting unnecessary details. This skill is crucial for effective communication, especially when presenting arguments, as it allows individuals to highlight evidence and key arguments succinctly.
Peer-reviewed: Peer-reviewed refers to the process by which scholarly work, such as research articles or studies, is evaluated and critiqued by experts in the same field before it is published. This ensures that the work meets high academic standards and contributes valuable knowledge to the discipline, making it a critical element when using evidence and citations in arguments.
Paraphrasing: Paraphrasing is the act of restating information or ideas from a source in your own words while retaining the original meaning. This skill is essential for effectively integrating evidence into arguments, evaluating research sources, and properly formatting citations, as it allows for clearer communication and demonstrates understanding of the material.
Statistics: Statistics is the science of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, presenting, and organizing data. It plays a crucial role in supporting arguments and claims by providing quantitative evidence that helps to validate or refute ideas. When used effectively, statistics can enhance persuasive writing and informative communication by making data more accessible and comprehensible to the audience.
Case Studies: Case studies are in-depth examinations of a particular individual, group, event, or phenomenon, often used to gather detailed insights and evidence for analysis. They provide a comprehensive understanding of complex issues and can serve as powerful examples to support arguments or claims in writing.
Expert opinions: Expert opinions are informed perspectives or conclusions provided by individuals who possess specialized knowledge, skills, or experience in a particular field. These opinions are crucial in arguments as they lend credibility and weight to claims, helping to persuade audiences by appealing to authoritative sources and established expertise.