🧑🏻‍🎨East Asian Art and Civilization Unit 4 – Buddhist Art in China

Historical Context

• Buddhism originated in India in the 5th century BCE and spread to China via the Silk Road during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE)
• The first documented introduction of Buddhism to China occurred in 67 CE when Emperor Ming of the Han Dynasty had a dream about a golden figure and sent envoys to India to learn more
• Buddhism gained popularity during times of political instability and social upheaval, such as the Period of Disunion (220-589 CE) and the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE)
• The translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, such as the Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra, helped to spread Buddhist teachings and influence Chinese culture
• Buddhist monasteries and temples became centers of learning, art production, and cultural exchange
• The development of Chinese Buddhist art was influenced by the interaction between Indian, Central Asian, and Chinese artistic traditions
• The decline of Buddhism in India and the rise of Islam in Central Asia in the 8th-9th centuries CE led to a decrease in the influx of new Buddhist ideas and art styles into China

Key Buddhist Concepts in Art

• The Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha) are often represented in Chinese Buddhist art through the depiction of the Buddha, Buddhist scriptures, and monastic communities
• The Four Noble Truths (suffering, the cause of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path to the cessation of suffering) are sometimes symbolized in art through the Wheel of Dharma or the Buddha's first sermon at Sarnath
• The concept of emptiness (śūnyatā) is expressed through the use of negative space and the depiction of transparent or ethereal figures
• The idea of impermanence (anicca) is conveyed through the representation of the Buddha's parinirvana (death) and the use of ephemeral materials such as sand or paper
• The Bodhisattva ideal of compassion and selflessness is embodied in the depiction of figures such as Avalokiteśvara (Guanyin) and Maitreya
• The Six Perfections (generosity, morality, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom) are sometimes represented through the depiction of Bodhisattvas engaged in various virtuous activities
• The concept of skillful means (upāya) is reflected in the use of various artistic styles and techniques to convey Buddhist teachings to different audiences

Major Periods and Styles

• The Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE) saw the development of the cave temples at Yungang and Longmen, which featured large-scale stone carvings of Buddhist figures and scenes
  • The Yungang Grottoes contain over 51,000 Buddhist statues, ranging from a few centimeters to 17 meters in height
  • The Longmen Grottoes feature over 110,000 Buddhist statues, 60 stupas, and 2,800 inscriptions
• The Sui Dynasty (581-618 CE) witnessed the construction of the Dazu Rock Carvings, which included both Buddhist and Daoist themes
• The Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) is considered the golden age of Chinese Buddhist art, with the development of new styles such as the Qingzhou style and the Tianlongshan style
  • The Qingzhou style, named after a city in Shandong province, is characterized by slender, elongated figures with flowing robes and serene expressions
  • The Tianlongshan style, named after a mountain range in Shanxi province, features more robust and dynamic figures with intricate drapery and expressive faces
• The Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE) saw the rise of Chan (Zen) Buddhism and the development of ink painting as a major medium for Buddhist art
  • Chan Buddhist artists often used monochromatic ink paintings to express the idea of direct transmission of enlightenment from master to disciple
  • The use of negative space and minimalist brushwork in Chan Buddhist art reflects the concept of emptiness and the rejection of attachment to form
• The Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 CE) was a period of Mongol rule and cultural exchange, with the introduction of Tibetan Buddhist art styles and iconography into China
• The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE) witnessed a revival of traditional Chinese art styles and a decrease in the production of Buddhist art due to the rise of Neo-Confucianism
• The Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 CE) saw a resurgence of interest in Buddhist art, particularly in the form of scroll paintings and porcelain figures

Iconic Symbols and Imagery

• The Buddha is often depicted with a halo or mandorla, symbolizing his spiritual enlightenment and transcendence
• The lotus flower, which grows out of mud but remains pure and beautiful, represents the potential for enlightenment within all beings
• The Wheel of Dharma (dharmachakra) represents the Buddha's teachings and the path to liberation from suffering
• The stupa, a mound-like structure containing relics, symbolizes the Buddha's parinirvana and the ultimate goal of enlightenment
• The Bodhi tree, under which the Buddha attained enlightenment, represents the site of the Buddha's awakening and the potential for spiritual transformation
• The mudra, or hand gesture, used by the Buddha and Bodhisattvas conveys specific meanings and teachings (e.g., the abhaya mudra represents fearlessness and protection)
• The lion, often depicted as a throne or guardian figure, symbolizes the Buddha's strength, courage, and royalty
• The deer, often depicted in pairs, represents the Buddha's first sermon at the Deer Park in Sarnath and the harmony of the Dharma

Famous Buddhist Sites in China

• The Mogao Caves in Dunhuang, Gansu province, contain over 2,000 cave temples and 45,000 square meters of murals dating from the 4th to the 14th centuries CE
  • The caves were a major center of Buddhist art and learning along the Silk Road, and they preserve a wide range of artistic styles and techniques from different periods and regions
  • The most famous cave is the Library Cave (Cave 17), which contained a hidden cache of over 50,000 manuscripts, paintings, and textiles that were sealed in the 11th century CE and rediscovered in 1900
• The Leshan Giant Buddha in Sichuan province is the largest stone Buddha statue in the world, measuring 71 meters in height and carved into a cliff face overlooking the confluence of three rivers
• The Yungang Grottoes in Shanxi province, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, contain over 51,000 Buddhist statues and 1,100 niches carved into the sandstone cliffs during the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE)
• The Longmen Grottoes in Henan province, another UNESCO World Heritage Site, feature over 110,000 Buddhist statues, 60 stupas, and 2,800 inscriptions carved into the limestone cliffs during the Northern Wei and Tang Dynasties (618-907 CE)
• The White Horse Temple (Baimasi) in Luoyang, Henan province, is considered the first Buddhist temple in China, established in 68 CE during the Han Dynasty
• The Shaolin Monastery in Henan province, famous for its martial arts tradition, was founded in the 5th century CE and contains numerous Buddhist sculptures, frescoes, and inscriptions
• The Maiji Mountain Grottoes in Gansu province, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, contain over 7,000 Buddhist sculptures and 1,000 square meters of murals dating from the Northern Wei to the Ming Dynasties (386-1644 CE)

Influential Artists and Patrons

• Dai Kui, a monk and artist from the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534 CE), is credited with creating the earliest dated Chinese Buddhist sculpture, the Seated Buddha from the Yungang Grottoes (dated 460 CE)
• Yang Huizhi, a court painter from the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), is known for his portraits of Buddhist monks and his innovative use of shading and modeling to create a sense of volume and depth
• Wu Daozi, another Tang Dynasty painter, is famous for his dynamic and expressive Buddhist murals, which influenced the development of the Chan (Zen) Buddhist ink painting tradition
• Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty (502-549 CE) was a major patron of Buddhism and commissioned the construction of numerous temples and monasteries, including the Tongtai Temple in Nanjing
• Empress Wu Zetian of the Tang Dynasty (624-705 CE) was a strong supporter of Buddhism and sponsored the construction of the Longmen Grottoes and the giant Buddha statue at the Fengxian Temple in Longmen
• Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty (598-649 CE) invited the famous Buddhist monk Xuanzang to the capital and commissioned him to translate the Buddhist scriptures he had brought back from India
• The Khitan rulers of the Liao Dynasty (907-1125 CE) were patrons of Buddhism and sponsored the creation of numerous Buddhist artworks, including the Qingzhou discovery, a cache of 6th-7th century CE Buddhist sculptures found in Shandong province in 1996

Techniques and Materials

• Stone carving was the primary technique used for creating large-scale Buddhist sculptures and cave temples, using materials such as sandstone, limestone, and marble
• Bronze casting was used to create smaller Buddhist sculptures and ritual objects, often using the lost-wax method and inlaid with precious materials such as gold and silver
• Clay sculpture, using materials such as unfired clay and stucco, was used to create Buddhist figures and decorative elements for cave temples and monasteries
• Wood carving was used to create Buddhist statues and architectural elements such as brackets and beams, often painted and gilded for decorative effect
• Silk painting, using materials such as silk, paper, and mineral pigments, was used to create Buddhist banners, sutra frontispieces, and portable icons
• Ink painting, using materials such as ink, paper, and silk, was used to create Chan (Zen) Buddhist paintings and calligraphy, emphasizing spontaneity and minimalism
• Fresco painting, using pigments applied to wet plaster, was used to create large-scale murals and decorative schemes for cave temples and monasteries
• Embroidery and textile arts were used to create Buddhist vestments, altar cloths, and decorative hangings, often using silk and gold thread

Impact on Chinese Culture and Society

• Buddhism introduced new ideas and values to Chinese culture, such as the concept of karma, the ideal of compassion, and the practice of meditation
• Buddhist monasteries and temples became centers of learning and cultural exchange, attracting scholars, artists, and pilgrims from different regions and social classes
• Buddhist art and architecture had a profound influence on Chinese aesthetics, introducing new styles, techniques, and iconography that were adapted and integrated into Chinese artistic traditions
• The translation of Buddhist scriptures into Chinese enriched the Chinese language and literature, introducing new vocabulary, genres, and literary devices
• Buddhist festivals and rituals, such as the Ghost Festival and the Bathing of the Buddha ceremony, became important parts of Chinese popular culture and religious life
• The spread of Buddhism in China also had political and social implications, as Buddhist institutions and leaders sometimes challenged or collaborated with imperial authority and local elites
• The interaction between Buddhism and other Chinese philosophical and religious traditions, such as Confucianism and Daoism, led to the development of syncretic beliefs and practices, such as the Three Teachings (Sanjiao) and the Buddho-Daoist pantheon
• The decline of Buddhism in China during the late Tang and Song Dynasties (9th-13th centuries CE) was partly due to the rise of Neo-Confucianism and the persecution of Buddhist institutions by some emperors, but Buddhism continued to influence Chinese culture and society in various ways, such as through the arts, literature, and popular religion