🏺Early World Civilizations Unit 9 – Classical Greece and Hellenistic Era

Key Events and Timeline

• Classical Greece period spans from ~500-323 BCE, followed by the Hellenistic Era from 323-31 BCE
• Persian Wars (499-449 BCE) Greeks defend against Persian invasions, Athens emerges as a major power
• Golden Age of Athens (480-404 BCE) marked by cultural, intellectual, and artistic achievements under Pericles
• Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) conflict between Athens and Sparta, Sparta emerges victorious
• Rise of Macedon under Philip II (359-336 BCE) unifies Greek city-states through military conquests and diplomacy
• Alexander the Great's conquests (336-323 BCE) expands Greek influence across the Near East and Asia
• Hellenistic period (323-31 BCE) Greek culture spreads and blends with local cultures in the conquered territories
• Roman conquest of Greece (146 BCE) marks the end of Greek independence and the beginning of Roman influence

Major City-States and Regions

• Athens known for its democracy, cultural achievements, and naval power
  • Acropolis serves as the center of religious and civic life, featuring the Parthenon temple
• Sparta known for its militaristic society, disciplined warriors, and oligarchic government
  • Spartan society divided into three classes: Spartiates (citizens), Perioikoi (free non-citizens), and Helots (state-owned serfs)
• Thebes rises to prominence after defeating Sparta in the Battle of Leuctra (371 BCE)
• Corinth important trade center and naval power, known for its distinctive architectural style (Corinthian order)
• Macedon located in the northern Greek region, becomes a dominant power under Philip II and Alexander the Great
• Ionia Greek colonies along the coast of modern-day Turkey, birthplace of many influential philosophers and scientists
• Magna Graecia Greek colonies in southern Italy and Sicily, known for their wealth and cultural achievements

Political Systems and Governance

• Greek city-states (poleis) function as independent political units with their own governments and laws
• Athens develops a direct democracy where citizens participate in decision-making through the Assembly (Ekklesia)
  • Athenian citizenship limited to free adult males, excluding women, slaves, and foreigners
• Sparta governed by an oligarchy with two hereditary kings and a council of elders (Gerousia)
  • Spartan government prioritizes military training and obedience to the state
• Tyranny form of government where an individual seizes power, often with popular support, and rules as a sole leader
• Hellenistic kingdoms ruled by monarchs who claim divine status and adopt elements of local cultures
  • Ptolemaic Egypt, Seleucid Empire, and Antigonid Macedonia are major Hellenistic kingdoms
• Greek political philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, develop ideas about the ideal forms of government and justice

Cultural Achievements and Innovations

• Greek architecture characterized by the use of columns, pediments, and proportional design
  • Three main architectural orders: Doric (simple), Ionic (scroll-like ornaments), and Corinthian (elaborate leaf designs)
• Sculpture evolves from stiff, stylized forms to naturalistic and idealized representations of the human body
  • Famous sculptures include the Discus Thrower (Myron) and the Venus de Milo
• Greek pottery features distinctive black-figure and red-figure painting techniques, depicting mythological scenes and daily life
• Theater emerges as a significant art form, with tragedies (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides) and comedies (Aristophanes)
  • Plays performed in outdoor theaters during religious festivals, such as the City Dionysia in Athens
• Greek mythology rich with gods, goddesses, heroes, and legendary figures, influencing art, literature, and religion
  • Homer's epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, recount the Trojan War and Odysseus' journey home
• Development of the Greek alphabet, derived from the Phoenician script, facilitates the spread of literacy and knowledge

Philosophy and Intellectual Developments

• Pre-Socratic philosophers (6th-5th centuries BCE) seek to explain the natural world through reason and observation
  • Thales of Miletus proposes water as the fundamental substance of the universe
  • Pythagoras develops mathematical concepts and the idea of the transmigration of souls
• Socrates (470-399 BCE) emphasizes the importance of questioning knowledge and engaging in dialogue to seek truth
  • Socratic method involves asking probing questions to stimulate critical thinking and expose ignorance
• Plato (428-348 BCE) founds the Academy in Athens and develops the theory of Forms, asserting that the material world is an imperfect reflection of eternal, abstract ideas
  • Plato's dialogues, such as The Republic, explore topics of justice, love, and the ideal state
• Aristotle (384-322 BCE) studies under Plato and later founds the Lyceum, making significant contributions to logic, biology, ethics, and politics
  • Aristotle's works, such as the Nicomachean Ethics and Politics, influence Western thought for centuries
• Hellenistic philosophers, such as the Stoics (Zeno) and Epicureans (Epicurus), focus on achieving personal happiness and tranquility
• Greek mathematicians, like Euclid and Archimedes, make advancements in geometry, physics, and engineering
  • Euclid's Elements serves as a foundational text for geometry, while Archimedes develops the concept of buoyancy and the Archimedes' screw

Warfare and Military Strategies

• Hoplite warfare dominates Greek battles, with heavily armed infantry fighting in close formation (phalanx)
  • Hoplites equipped with spears, shields, and bronze armor, relying on discipline and teamwork
• Sparta's military success attributed to its rigorous training system (agoge) and the skill of its warriors
  • Spartan army divided into smaller units (mora) for flexibility and maneuverability
• Athenian navy becomes a formidable force, with its fleet of triremes (warships) and skilled rowers
  • Athenian naval victories at the battles of Salamis (480 BCE) and Arginusae (406 BCE) demonstrate their maritime prowess
• Macedonian army under Philip II and Alexander the Great introduces new tactics and weapons
  • Macedonian phalanx uses longer spears (sarissas) and smaller shields for greater offensive power
  • Cavalry, including the Companion Cavalry, plays a crucial role in Macedonian victories
• Siege warfare becomes more prevalent during the Hellenistic period, with the development of advanced siege engines (catapults, battering rams)
• Greek military leaders, such as Pericles, Epaminondas, and Alexander the Great, are renowned for their strategic brilliance and leadership skills

Economic Systems and Trade

• Agriculture forms the foundation of the Greek economy, with the cultivation of crops like wheat, barley, olives, and grapes
  • Terraced farming and irrigation techniques help overcome the challenges of Greece's mountainous terrain
• Craft production and manufacturing thrive in urban centers, with artisans creating pottery, textiles, metalwork, and jewelry
  • Athens known for its high-quality pottery, while Corinth specializes in bronze work
• Maritime trade plays a vital role in the Greek economy, facilitated by the development of harbor facilities and merchant ships
  • Greek colonies serve as trading posts and sources of raw materials, such as timber, metals, and grain
• Coinage introduced in the 7th century BCE, with city-states minting their own coins to facilitate trade and commerce
  • Athenian silver tetradrachm becomes a widely accepted currency throughout the Greek world
• Slavery is a significant aspect of the Greek economy, with slaves working in households, mines, and workshops
  • Slave labor helps support the leisure and intellectual pursuits of the free citizens
• Hellenistic period sees the emergence of large-scale trade networks, connecting the Mediterranean with the Near East and Asia
  • Alexandria in Egypt becomes a major center of trade and learning, with its famous library and museum

Legacy and Influence on Later Civilizations

• Greek culture, language, and ideas spread throughout the Mediterranean and Near East during the Hellenistic period
  • Koine Greek becomes the lingua franca of the Hellenistic world, facilitating communication and cultural exchange
• Roman Republic and Empire adopt and adapt many aspects of Greek culture, including art, architecture, literature, and philosophy
  • Roman poets, such as Virgil and Ovid, draw inspiration from Greek mythology and epic poetry
• Greek philosophy and science continue to influence Western thought throughout the medieval and modern periods
  • Islamic scholars help preserve and transmit Greek knowledge to the West during the Middle Ages
• Greek political ideas, such as democracy and republicanism, inspire later political movements and revolutions
  • American Founding Fathers look to ancient Greek models when designing the United States' system of government
• Greek art and architecture serve as models for neoclassical styles in the 18th and 19th centuries
  • Neoclassical architecture, characterized by symmetry and classical motifs, appears in public buildings and monuments worldwide
• Greek mythology and literature continue to captivate audiences and inspire creative works in various media, from poetry and theater to film and video games