9.2 Greek philosophy, science, and arts
6 min read•july 30, 2024
Greek philosophy, science, and arts were revolutionary, shaping Western thought for millennia. From the early philosophers' quest to explain the natural world to ' focus on , these thinkers laid the groundwork for critical thinking and scientific inquiry.
Greek achievements in math, astronomy, and medicine advanced human knowledge significantly. Their artistic and literary works, exploring universal themes, continue to inspire and influence modern creators. This cultural legacy remains a cornerstone of Western civilization.
Major Greek Philosophers
Early Greek Philosophers
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- The Pre-Socratics, such as Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes, pioneered the use of reason and observation to explain the natural world, marking the beginning of Western philosophy and science
- These early philosophers sought natural explanations for phenomena, moving away from mythological or supernatural explanations (Thales proposed that water was the fundamental substance of the universe)
Socrates and His Followers
- Socrates, known through the writings of his students and Xenophon, developed the of questioning to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate ideas
- He shifted the focus of philosophical inquiry from the natural world to human behavior and ethics, emphasizing the importance of self-knowledge and moral virtue
- Plato, founder of the Academy in Athens, developed the theory of Forms, which holds that the physical world is an imperfect reflection of the ideal, eternal Forms (the Form of the Good is the highest reality)
- In his Republic, Plato outlined his vision of the ideal state governed by philosopher-kings, emphasizing the importance of education and the pursuit of wisdom
- , a student of Plato and tutor of Alexander the Great, founded the Lyceum in Athens and made significant contributions to various fields of knowledge
- He developed the principles of logic, identifying the basic rules of inference and the structure of valid arguments (the syllogism)
- Aristotle identified the four causes (material, formal, efficient, and final) as the fundamental principles of explanation in natural philosophy
- His outlines his theory of virtue as the mean between extremes and his conception of eudaimonia (human flourishing) as the highest good
- In his Politics, Aristotle classified different forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) and argued for a mixed constitution balancing the interests of different social classes
Hellenistic Philosophers
- The Hellenistic philosophers, including the Stoics, Epicureans, and Skeptics, developed philosophical schools focused on ethics and the attainment of happiness in a turbulent world
- The Stoics, such as Zeno and Epictetus, emphasized the importance of living in accordance with reason and accepting one's fate with equanimity
- The Epicureans, founded by Epicurus, sought to attain happiness through the pursuit of moderate pleasures and the avoidance of pain and anxiety
- The Skeptics, such as Pyrrho and Sextus Empiricus, questioned the possibility of certain knowledge and advocated the suspension of judgment to achieve peace of mind
Greek Advancements in Science
Mathematics and Geometry
- Greek mathematicians such as Pythagoras, , and made significant advances in geometry, number theory, and mathematical physics
- Pythagoras and his followers discovered the mathematical relationships in music and the for right triangles ()
- Euclid systematized geometry in his Elements, developing proofs from basic axioms and postulates (the parallel postulate)
- Archimedes made advances in the calculation of area and volume, including the formula for the volume of a sphere () and cylinder
- He also developed the law of the lever and the principles of buoyancy (Archimedes' principle)
Astronomy and Cosmology
- Greek astronomers such as Aristarchus, , and Ptolemy made detailed observations of the heavens and developed mathematical models to explain celestial motion
- Aristarchus proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system, but his view was not widely accepted in antiquity
- Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the Earth with remarkable accuracy using observations of the sun's angle at different locations
- Ptolemy's Almagest presented a comprehensive geocentric model of the universe using epicycles to explain the retrograde motion of the planets (the Ptolemaic system)
- His model remained the standard until the Copernican revolution in the 16th century
Medicine and Anatomy
- Greek physicians such as and made advances in medical theory and practice, establishing medicine as a profession distinct from philosophy and religion
- Hippocrates and his followers emphasized the importance of clinical observation and the ethical treatment of patients, as reflected in the Hippocratic Oath
- They developed the theory of the four humors (blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm) as the basis of health and disease
- Galen, a physician in Roman imperial service, developed a comprehensive medical theory based on the four humors
- He made detailed anatomical studies (dissections of animals) and developed treatments based on diet, exercise, and herbal remedies (pharmacology)
Influence of Greek Culture
Art and Architecture
- Greek artists and architects developed the classical style characterized by idealized naturalism, harmony, and proportion
- The Greeks developed the three classical orders of architecture (Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian), characterized by different styles of columns and entablatures
- Greek temples such as the Parthenon embody the principles of classical architecture, with their symmetrical design and harmonious proportions
- Greek sculptors such as , Myron, and Praxiteles created idealized representations of the human form, often depicting gods, heroes, and athletes
- The contrapposto stance (weight shifted to one leg) and the canon of proportions became standard features of
- Greek painters such as Zeuxis and Apelles were renowned for their skill in creating illusionistic images, although few original works survive (the Alexander Mosaic is a Roman copy of a Greek painting)
Literature and Drama
- Greek poets, playwrights, and historians created enduring works of literature that explored universal human themes and established genres that continue to influence Western literature
- The epic poems of , and , depict the heroic age of Greek mythology and explore themes of honor, glory, and the human condition
- The lyric poets, such as Sappho and Pindar, developed various poetic forms to express personal emotions and celebrate public occasions (the ode, the elegy)
- The Athenian dramatists , , and developed tragedy as a genre that explores the human struggle against fate and the consequences of human actions (Oedipus Rex, Medea)
- The comedies of satirize contemporary Athenian society and politics, often featuring biting social commentary and crude humor (The Clouds, Lysistrata)
- and established the genre of history as a systematic investigation of past events based on evidence and critical analysis (The Histories, The Peloponnesian War)
Lasting Impact of Greek Thought
Philosophy and Political Thought
- Greek philosophical ideas, particularly those of Plato and Aristotle, have had a profound influence on Western thought, shaping the development of Christian theology, medieval scholasticism, and modern philosophy
- , the theory of Forms, and the concept of the philosopher-king have influenced Western political thought (St. Augustine's City of God, Sir Thomas More's Utopia)
- Aristotelian logic, ethics, and natural philosophy formed the basis of medieval scholasticism and continue to be studied and debated by modern philosophers
- The Socratic method of questioning remains a fundamental tool of philosophical inquiry and critical thinking, used in education and legal reasoning
Science and Technology
- Greek mathematical and scientific ideas laid the foundations for the development of modern science and technology
- Euclidean geometry remained the standard framework for understanding space until the development of non-Euclidean geometries in the 19th century (Riemannian geometry)
- The work of Archimedes in mathematics and physics anticipated the development of calculus and laid the foundations for the scientific study of mechanics
- The astronomical observations and mathematical models of the Greeks, particularly Ptolemy's Almagest, provided a framework for understanding the cosmos that remained influential until the Scientific Revolution (Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo)
- The medical theories and practices of Hippocrates and Galen shaped the development of Western medicine until the modern era, with the Hippocratic Oath still serving as an ethical guide for physicians
Art and Literature
- Greek artistic and literary achievements continue to inspire and influence modern creators and scholars
- The classical style in art and architecture has been revived and adapted in various periods, from the Renaissance to the neoclassical era to the present day (the US Capitol, the British Museum)
- The literary genres and themes developed by the Greeks, particularly in epic poetry, lyric poetry, drama, and history, continue to shape modern literature and scholarship
- Greek mythology remains a rich source of inspiration for modern artists, writers, and filmmakers, as seen in works such as James Joyce's Ulysses and Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson series
- The study of Greek literature, art, and culture remains a cornerstone of the humanities, with classical studies programs offered at universities worldwide
Key Terms to Review (32)
Aeschylus: Aeschylus was an ancient Greek playwright, often referred to as the 'father of tragedy' for his pivotal role in developing the genre. He is credited with expanding the number of characters in plays, allowing for more complex narratives and interactions, and is best known for works like 'The Oresteia,' which examines themes of justice, revenge, and the role of the divine in human affairs.
Archimedes: Archimedes was an ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor, known for his contributions to mathematics and the principles of mechanics. His work laid the foundation for many scientific advancements during the Hellenistic period and influenced various fields of study including physics and engineering, showcasing the blending of science and philosophy in that era.
Aristophanes: Aristophanes was a prominent ancient Greek playwright known for his comedic plays that satirized contemporary society, politics, and culture during the Golden Age of Athens. His works are significant as they provide insight into the social and political climate of his time while also demonstrating the artistic qualities of early Greek theatre.
Aristotle: Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist, one of the most influential figures in Western thought. He made significant contributions to various fields including philosophy, ethics, politics, metaphysics, and natural sciences, laying the foundation for many disciplines that followed. His works reflect a systematic approach to knowledge, emphasizing empirical observation and logic, which had a lasting impact on subsequent thinkers and the development of various branches of knowledge.
Classical sculpture: Classical sculpture refers to the artistic style of sculpting that emerged in ancient Greece and Rome, characterized by realistic human figures, idealized proportions, and an emphasis on beauty and harmony. This art form reflects the values of the time, such as balance, symmetry, and an appreciation for the human form, influencing not only the arts but also philosophy and science during that period.
Corinthian Order: The Corinthian Order is a classical architectural style that originated in ancient Greece, characterized by its ornate columns and elaborate capitals adorned with acanthus leaves and scrolls. This order is known for its elegance and decorative detail, often used in temples and public buildings, symbolizing the height of architectural sophistication during the Hellenistic period. The Corinthian Order reflects the cultural achievements of the time, merging beauty with structural functionality.
Dialectic: Dialectic refers to a method of argumentation and reasoning that emphasizes the exchange of opposing viewpoints in order to arrive at a deeper understanding or truth. This technique, rooted in the philosophical traditions of Ancient Greece, involves dialogue and debate, where the synthesis of conflicting ideas leads to new insights and knowledge. It is closely tied to the development of critical thinking and logical discourse in philosophy, science, and the arts.
Doric Order: The Doric Order is one of the classical orders of ancient Greek architecture characterized by its simple, sturdy columns with no base and a fluted shaft. It represents strength and masculinity, often associated with the austere style of the early Greek period. This architectural style not only influenced the design of temples and public buildings but also reflects the broader values of Greek society in terms of functionality and beauty.
Eratosthenes: Eratosthenes was a Greek mathematician, astronomer, and geographer known for calculating the Earth's circumference with remarkable accuracy in the 3rd century BCE. His work not only demonstrated advanced mathematical skills but also contributed significantly to the fields of geography and astronomy during a time when exploration was essential to understanding the world. By applying his knowledge of geometry and observational techniques, he laid the groundwork for future scientific inquiry in the Hellenistic era.
Ethics: Ethics refers to the principles and values that govern an individual's or group's behavior, determining what is considered right or wrong, good or bad. It often involves the systematic study of moral values and rules, and plays a critical role in shaping philosophical thought, scientific inquiry, and artistic expression throughout history.
Euclid: Euclid was an ancient Greek mathematician often referred to as the 'Father of Geometry.' His most famous work, the 'Elements,' compiled and systematized the knowledge of geometry of his time, laying the groundwork for what would become the modern study of mathematics. His influence extended far beyond geometry, impacting various fields such as logic and science, especially during the Hellenistic period.
Euripides: Euripides was a prominent ancient Greek playwright, known for his tragedies that often explored complex human emotions and moral dilemmas. His works are characterized by their innovative storytelling, strong female characters, and a questioning of traditional values, making significant contributions to the evolution of drama and theatre in ancient Greece.
Galen: Galen was a prominent Greek physician and philosopher whose work significantly influenced the development of medicine and science in both the Roman Empire and later in medieval Europe. He is best known for his extensive writings on anatomy, physiology, and medical theory, which synthesized the knowledge of earlier thinkers like Hippocrates while introducing new ideas that shaped medical practices for centuries.
Geocentrism: Geocentrism is the astronomical theory that positions Earth at the center of the universe, with all celestial bodies, including the sun and stars, revolving around it. This belief was deeply rooted in ancient Greek philosophy and science, influencing many aspects of thought and culture during that time, particularly in how humanity understood its place in the cosmos.
Hellenistic Culture: Hellenistic culture refers to the blend of Greek, Middle Eastern, and Asian influences that emerged after the conquests of Alexander the Great, lasting from approximately 323 BCE to 30 BCE. This period is characterized by significant advancements in philosophy, science, and the arts, reflecting a cosmopolitan approach to knowledge and creativity. Hellenistic culture marked a shift towards individualism and exploration of diverse ideas, as it encouraged the synthesis of different traditions and practices from the regions that were influenced by Greek civilization.
Herodotus: Herodotus, often referred to as the 'Father of History,' was an ancient Greek historian who lived in the 5th century BCE. He is best known for his work 'Histories,' which is considered one of the earliest examples of historical writing and explores the events leading up to and during the Greco-Persian Wars. His approach to documenting history included a mix of fact and folklore, emphasizing the importance of cultural context in understanding historical events.
Hippocrates: Hippocrates was an ancient Greek physician often referred to as the 'Father of Medicine' due to his significant contributions to the field of medicine and the ethical standards he established. He is best known for the Hippocratic Corpus, a collection of texts that laid the groundwork for medical practice and emphasized observation and clinical diagnosis, connecting his work to both scientific inquiry and the moral dimensions of healing.
Homer: Homer is an ancient Greek poet traditionally said to be the author of two of the greatest epic poems of ancient Greece, 'The Iliad' and 'The Odyssey'. These works not only narrate heroic tales but also explore themes of morality, heroism, and the human condition, influencing Greek philosophy, science, and arts significantly throughout history.
Ionic Order: Ionic order is a style of ancient Greek architecture characterized by its slender and elegant columns with distinctive volutes, or scroll-like ornaments, on the capitals. This architectural form emerged in the 6th century BCE, primarily on the islands of Ionia, and was widely adopted in various temples and public buildings. The Ionic order represents a significant development in Greek architectural aesthetics, reflecting the cultural emphasis on beauty, proportion, and harmony in both philosophy and the arts.
Nicomachean Ethics: Nicomachean Ethics is a foundational work of moral philosophy by Aristotle that explores the nature of ethical virtue and the path to achieving a good life. In this text, Aristotle argues that the purpose of human life is to achieve eudaimonia, often translated as 'flourishing' or 'happiness', which is accomplished through the practice of virtue. The work emphasizes the importance of moderation and the 'Golden Mean' in ethical behavior, connecting moral virtue to rationality and character development.
Phidias: Phidias was an ancient Greek sculptor and architect, renowned for his mastery of monumental sculpture during the Classical period. His most famous works include the statue of Athena Parthenos that adorned the Parthenon in Athens and the colossal statue of Zeus at Olympia, which was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Phidias is often celebrated for his ability to blend realism with idealized beauty, influencing generations of artists and sculptors.
Plato: Plato was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded the Academy in Athens, one of the earliest institutions of higher learning in the Western world. He is best known for his writings on philosophy, ethics, and political theory, particularly through dialogues featuring his teacher Socrates. Plato's ideas laid the groundwork for Western philosophy and continue to influence various fields, including science and the arts.
Platonic idealism: Platonic idealism is a philosophical theory developed by Plato, positing that non-material abstract forms or ideas (the 'Forms') represent the most accurate reality. According to this view, the physical world is a mere shadow or reflection of these perfect and unchanging ideals, which are more real than objects we perceive through our senses. This theory influenced various domains including ethics, metaphysics, and epistemology, shaping foundational concepts in philosophy, science, and the arts.
Pythagorean Theorem: The Pythagorean Theorem is a fundamental principle in geometry that states that in a right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. This theorem is crucial not only in mathematics but also connects to broader themes in Greek philosophy, science, and arts as it showcases the Greeks' approach to understanding the world through logic and reason.
Socrates: Socrates was a classical Greek philosopher credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. He is best known for his Socratic method, a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue that stimulates critical thinking and illuminates ideas. His approach to philosophy emphasized the importance of ethics and self-examination, influencing countless philosophers and shaping the landscape of Greek thought.
Socratic Method: The Socratic Method is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue that stimulates critical thinking and draws out ideas and underlying presumptions. It involves asking a series of questions to challenge assumptions and encourage deeper reflection, fostering an environment where knowledge can be constructed collaboratively. This method has roots in ancient Greek philosophy, particularly in the works of Socrates, and connects deeply to the development of democratic ideals by emphasizing dialogue and inquiry as essential components of citizenship and intellectual growth.
Sophocles: Sophocles was an ancient Greek playwright, best known for his tragedies, including 'Oedipus Rex' and 'Antigone'. He made significant contributions to the development of drama and theatre, particularly in the use of character development and complex plots. His works not only reflect the cultural values of ancient Greece but also explore profound philosophical themes such as fate, morality, and the human condition.
The Iliad: The Iliad is an ancient Greek epic poem attributed to Homer, narrating the events of the Trojan War, particularly focusing on the hero Achilles and his conflict with King Agamemnon. This work is a cornerstone of Greek literature and has significantly influenced Western culture, especially in philosophy, science, and the arts, by exploring themes of heroism, fate, and the human condition.
The Odyssey: The Odyssey is an ancient Greek epic poem attributed to Homer, detailing the adventurous journey of Odysseus as he returns home to Ithaca after the Trojan War. This work not only highlights the hero's struggles against various mythical creatures and divine beings but also explores themes of perseverance, loyalty, and the quest for identity, intertwining with the cultural and intellectual developments of ancient Greece.
The republic: A republic is a form of government in which the country is considered a 'public matter,' and is not the private concern or property of the rulers. It emphasizes a system of representation where officials are accountable to the citizens and must govern according to existing constitutional law that limits government power over citizens. This concept has profound connections to the development of democratic ideals and civic responsibility in various civilizations.
Thucydides: Thucydides was an ancient Greek historian, best known for his work 'History of the Peloponnesian War,' which documents the conflict between Athens and Sparta from 431 to 404 BCE. His writings are notable for their strict standards of evidence-gathering and analysis of cause and effect, marking a significant shift in historical methodology and contributing to the development of historical thinking in Western civilization.
Tragedy in drama: Tragedy in drama is a genre characterized by serious themes and an often somber tone, where the protagonist experiences significant suffering, typically due to a combination of personal flaws and external forces. This form of storytelling highlights human struggles, moral dilemmas, and the consequences of actions, often evoking pity and fear in the audience. In ancient Greek culture, tragedy was crucial in exploring complex ideas about fate, morality, and the human condition.