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Early World Civilizations
Table of Contents
Unit 16 Overview: The Americas: Aztec and Inca Empires
16.1 Aztec Empire: social structure and religious practices
16.2 Inca Empire: administration and infrastructure
16.3 Mesoamerican and Andean art and architecture

🏺early world civilizations review

16.1 Aztec Empire: social structure and religious practices

Citation:

The Aztec Empire's social structure was a complex hierarchy with the emperor at the top and slaves at the bottom. This system shaped every aspect of Aztec life, from government to daily routines, and played a crucial role in maintaining order and power.

Religion was central to Aztec culture, with a pantheon of gods requiring human blood to keep the universe in balance. Priests held significant influence, and human sacrifice was a key practice, believed to appease the gods and ensure cosmic harmony.

Aztec Social Hierarchy

Social Classes and Their Roles

  • Aztec society was divided into distinct social classes, with the emperor (tlatoani) at the top, followed by nobles, commoners, and slaves
  • The emperor held absolute power and was considered a divine ruler, believed to be the earthly representative of the gods
  • Nobles (pipiltin) held high-ranking positions in the government, military, and priesthood
    • They owned land, which was worked by commoners
  • Commoners (macehualtin) made up the majority of the population and were primarily farmers, artisans, and merchants
    • Commoners were required to pay tribute to the nobles and the state in the form of goods, labor, and military service
    • Skilled commoners, such as artisans (featherworkers) and merchants (pochteca), held a slightly higher status than farmers
  • Slaves (tlacotin) were at the bottom of the social hierarchy and were typically prisoners of war or individuals who had fallen into debt
    • Slavery was not hereditary, and children of slaves were considered free
    • Slaves could buy their freedom or be granted freedom by their owners

Social Mobility and Its Implications

  • Social mobility was possible through military achievement, as commoners who demonstrated exceptional bravery in battle could be elevated to the rank of noble
  • The possibility of social advancement through military prowess encouraged commoners to participate in wars and expand the empire
  • The rigid social structure ensured stability and order in Aztec society, with each class having clearly defined roles and responsibilities
  • The hierarchical nature of Aztec society reinforced the power of the ruling class and the importance of religious ideology in maintaining social control

Religion in Aztec Culture

Polytheistic Beliefs and Practices

  • The Aztec religion was polytheistic, with a pantheon of gods representing various aspects of nature and human life, such as Huitzilopochtli (god of war and the sun), Tlaloc (god of rain and fertility), and Quetzalcoatl (god of wind, learning, and culture)
  • The Aztec believed that the gods required human blood to maintain the balance of the universe and ensure the continuation of life
  • The Aztec calendar, which combined a 365-day solar calendar (xiuhpohualli) and a 260-day ritual calendar (tonalpohualli), was closely tied to religious ceremonies and agricultural cycles
  • Religious festivals and ceremonies were held throughout the year to honor specific gods and ensure their continued favor (Toxcatl festival for Tezcatlipoca)

Role of Priests and Religious Leaders

  • Priests held significant influence in Aztec society, as they were responsible for conducting religious ceremonies, interpreting divine messages, and advising the emperor on matters of state
  • Priests underwent extensive training in religious knowledge, astronomy, and calendar systems to perform their duties effectively
  • The high priest (Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui) was one of the most powerful figures in Aztec society, second only to the emperor
  • Religious leaders played a crucial role in maintaining social order and legitimizing the power of the ruling class through their control over religious ideology and practices

Religion and Political Power

  • The emperor's legitimacy was closely tied to his role as a religious leader, as he was believed to be the earthly representative of the gods
    • The emperor was responsible for ensuring the favor of the gods through the proper performance of religious rituals and ceremonies
    • The emperor's success in war and the expansion of the empire were seen as signs of divine favor
  • The construction of temples and religious monuments, such as the Templo Mayor in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, was a demonstration of the empire's wealth, power, and devotion to the gods
  • Religion served as a unifying force in Aztec society, providing a shared set of beliefs and practices that reinforced social cohesion and political stability

Human Sacrifice in Aztec Religion

Significance and Purpose

  • Human sacrifice was a central component of Aztec religious practices, believed to be necessary to appease the gods and maintain cosmic balance
  • The Aztec believed that the gods had sacrificed themselves to create the world and that humans had a duty to repay this sacrifice through the offering of human blood
  • Sacrifices were performed to ensure the continuation of the sun's journey across the sky, the success of agricultural cycles, and the prosperity of the empire
  • The Aztec believed that sacrificial victims would be granted a privileged afterlife, serving as companions to the gods

Sacrificial Victims and Methods

  • Sacrificial victims were typically prisoners of war, but could also include slaves or individuals chosen for their physical perfection
  • The most common method of sacrifice was the extraction of the heart, which was offered to the gods, while the body was often dismembered or cannibalized in ritual ceremonies
  • Other methods of sacrifice included decapitation, drowning, and being shot with arrows
  • The scale of human sacrifice in Aztec society was significant, with some estimates suggesting thousands of individuals were sacrificed each year during major religious festivals, such as the feast of Tlacaxipehualiztli

Political and Social Implications

  • Human sacrifice was used as a political tool to demonstrate the power of the Aztec empire and to instill fear in conquered peoples
    • The Aztec would often demand a regular tribute of sacrificial victims from subjugated city-states (Tlaxcala)
  • The practice of human sacrifice reinforced the authority of the ruling class and the importance of warfare in Aztec society
  • The constant need for sacrificial victims fueled the Aztec's military campaigns and expansionist policies
  • The practice of human sacrifice was one of the factors that contributed to the negative perception of the Aztec among neighboring peoples (Tarascans) and later Spanish conquistadors, who used it as a justification for the conquest and destruction of the empire

Key Terms to Review (15)

Slaves: Slaves are individuals who are forcibly held in servitude, lacking personal freedom and the ability to choose their own paths in life. Throughout history, slavery has often been a foundational aspect of societies, influencing their economies, social structures, and cultural practices. In many civilizations, including those governed by dynasties or empires, slaves were considered property and were exploited for labor, contributing to the wealth and power of their owners.
Tenochtitlan's Fall: Tenochtitlan's Fall refers to the conquest of the Aztec capital by Spanish forces led by Hernán Cortés in 1521, marking the end of the Aztec Empire. This event was not only significant for its immediate military and political implications but also represented a drastic cultural shift, as the Spanish imposed their beliefs and systems on the indigenous peoples, disrupting traditional social structures and religious practices.
Chinampas: Chinampas are a unique agricultural technique developed by the Aztecs, involving the creation of floating gardens on shallow lake beds. This method allowed for intensive farming in the swampy regions around lakes, enabling the Aztecs to cultivate a variety of crops and support a large population. Chinampas not only increased agricultural output but also played a vital role in the social structure and religious practices of the Aztec Empire, linking food production with community and ritualistic significance.
Spanish Conquest: The Spanish Conquest refers to the period of colonization and military expeditions led by Spanish explorers and conquistadors in the Americas during the 16th century, primarily targeting powerful indigenous empires like the Aztecs and Incas. This conquest fundamentally altered the social, political, and economic landscape of the region, leading to the establishment of Spanish colonies and significant cultural exchange.
The fifth sun: The fifth sun is a significant concept in Aztec cosmology, representing the current era of the world that began after the destruction of the previous four suns. Each sun symbolizes a distinct age in the Aztec belief system, with the fifth sun being associated with human existence and ongoing cycles of creation and destruction. This belief was central to their understanding of time and the universe, influencing their religious practices and social structure.
Calendar stone: The calendar stone, also known as the Aztec sun stone, is a large monolithic sculpture that represents the Aztec understanding of time, cosmology, and their calendar system. This intricate artifact features detailed carvings that depict various deities, celestial events, and the cyclical nature of time, highlighting the importance of astronomy and ritual practices in Aztec society.
Templo mayor: Templo Mayor was the main temple of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, serving as a significant religious and cultural center. It was dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, and Tlaloc, the god of rain, reflecting the duality of Aztec beliefs. The structure played a crucial role in the social and religious practices of the Aztec Empire, as it was the site of important rituals, including human sacrifices, that were believed to sustain the gods and ensure cosmic order.
Huitzilopochtli: Huitzilopochtli is the Aztec god of war, sun, and human sacrifice, playing a central role in Aztec mythology and religion. He was believed to guide the Mexica people in their migration to their homeland, and his worship included elaborate rituals and sacrifices, which were essential for maintaining the favor of the gods and ensuring the continuation of life.
Quetzalcoatl: Quetzalcoatl, often referred to as the 'Feathered Serpent,' is a prominent deity in Mesoamerican culture, particularly within the Aztec civilization. He is associated with wind, air, and learning, and is considered a creator god who played a significant role in the creation of humanity and the world. Quetzalcoatl's influence extended into the social structure and religious practices of the Aztecs, where he symbolized knowledge, culture, and the balance between nature and civilization.
Tlatoani: Tlatoani refers to the title held by the ruler or king in the Aztec Empire, meaning 'one who speaks' or 'speaker.' This term is deeply connected to the political and religious aspects of Aztec society, as the tlatoani was seen as a crucial figure who governed the city-states and represented the will of the gods. Their role was not only administrative but also spiritual, as they were expected to maintain harmony with the divine through rituals and offerings.
Human sacrifice: Human sacrifice is the ritualistic offering of a human life, often as part of religious or cultural practices. In the context of the Aztec Empire, human sacrifice was deeply intertwined with their social structure and religious beliefs, serving both as a means to appease deities and to sustain the cosmic order. This practice was not only a spiritual act but also reinforced social hierarchies and power dynamics within Aztec society.
Nobility: Nobility refers to a privileged social class that typically holds hereditary titles and enjoys certain rights and privileges not available to the common population. This elite group often plays significant roles in governance, military leadership, and cultural patronage, influencing political structures and societal norms across various civilizations.
Terracing: Terracing is an agricultural practice where land is transformed into a series of steps or flat areas, typically on sloped terrain, to improve water retention and reduce soil erosion. This technique allows for more efficient farming in hilly regions by maximizing arable land and optimizing water use. It has been a crucial innovation for various ancient civilizations, enabling them to sustain large populations and complex societies.
Dualism: Dualism is the concept that two fundamental and opposing forces or principles exist, often represented as good and evil, light and darkness. This idea highlights the struggle between these opposing elements, influencing religious beliefs and moral frameworks. In many cultures, dualism shapes narratives about the universe, human nature, and ethical decision-making, allowing for a clearer understanding of the complexities of existence.
Priests: Priests are religious leaders responsible for performing sacred rituals, maintaining spiritual authority, and guiding the religious practices of a community. They often serve as intermediaries between the divine and the people, influencing both spiritual beliefs and societal norms. Their roles can encompass various responsibilities, including offering sacrifices, conducting ceremonies, and teaching religious doctrines, which can have a profound impact on the overall structure and function of society.