3.3 The role of borders and territorial disputes
3 min read•august 7, 2024
Borders in Africa, drawn arbitrarily by colonial powers, have caused major headaches. These lines on a map split ethnic groups and fueled conflicts between newly independent nations. It's a mess that's hard to clean up.
The Organization of African Unity tried to keep these borders to avoid chaos. But it's tricky. Some groups want to break away or unite with their people across borders. Natural resources in disputed areas make things even messier.
Colonial Legacy and Arbitrary Boundaries
Berlin Conference and Arbitrary Boundaries
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- (1884-1885) European powers divided Africa into colonial territories without regard for existing ethnic, cultural, or linguistic boundaries
- Arbitrary boundaries drawn by colonial powers based on their own interests and spheres of influence rather than the realities on the ground
- Colonial borders often split ethnic groups, kingdoms, and communities across multiple territories (Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania, Hausa in Nigeria and Niger)
- Artificial boundaries laid the foundation for future territorial disputes and conflicts as African nations gained independence
Transnational Ethnic Groups and Uti Possidetis Principle
- found themselves divided by colonial borders, leading to divided loyalties and potential irredentist claims
- Examples of transnational ethnic groups include the Tuareg (Mali, Niger, Algeria), Somali (Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya), and Ewe (Ghana, Togo)
- , adopted by the , maintained colonial borders upon independence to prevent territorial disputes
- Despite the uti possidetis principle, the arbitrary nature of colonial boundaries continued to fuel tensions and conflicts in post-colonial Africa
Territorial Disputes and Conflicts
Irredentism and Border Conflicts
- , the desire to unite a transnational ethnic group within a single state, has led to territorial disputes and conflicts ( in the Ogaden region of Ethiopia)
- have arisen due to the arbitrary nature of colonial boundaries and competing territorial claims ( over the Bakassi Peninsula)
- Examples of border conflicts include the (1998-2000) and the over the Abyei region
Secession Movements and Resource-Based Disputes
- have emerged as ethnic groups or regions seek to break away from existing states ( in Nigeria, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo)
- occur when valuable natural resources, such as oil or minerals, are located in contested border regions (Sudan-South Sudan dispute over oil-rich areas)
- The discovery of natural resources in border regions can intensify territorial disputes and fuel conflicts (Uganda-Democratic Republic of the Congo conflict over oil in the )
African Response and Resolution
Organization of African Unity (OAU) and Uti Possidetis Principle
- The OAU, established in 1963, aimed to promote African unity and resolve territorial disputes peacefully
- The OAU adopted the uti possidetis principle, which maintained colonial borders upon independence to prevent territorial conflicts
- The OAU's commitment to the uti possidetis principle was tested by numerous border disputes and secession movements (Biafra, Eritrea)
- Despite the OAU's efforts, the organization struggled to effectively resolve many territorial disputes due to its adherence to the uti possidetis principle and the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of member states
Addressing Border Conflicts and Secession Movements
- African regional organizations, such as the and the , have played a role in mediating border conflicts and secession movements
- Examples of regional interventions include ECOWAS' involvement in the Liberian civil war and IGAD's mediation efforts in the Sudan-South Sudan conflict
- The , which succeeded the OAU in 2002, has adopted a more proactive approach to conflict resolution and peacekeeping (AU Mission in Somalia, AU-led negotiations in the Sudan-South Sudan conflict)
- Despite these efforts, the resolution of territorial disputes and secession movements remains a significant challenge for African states and regional organizations, as the root causes of these conflicts, such as the arbitrary nature of colonial boundaries and the unequal distribution of resources, persist
Key Terms to Review (18)
African Union (AU): The African Union (AU) is a continental organization established in 2001 to promote unity, cooperation, and development among African states while addressing political, economic, and social challenges. The AU aims to foster peace, security, and stability across the continent, serving as a platform for dialogue on critical issues such as borders, territorial disputes, and democratic governance.
Albertine Rift: The Albertine Rift is a geological feature located in East Africa, part of the East African Rift System, characterized by a series of valleys and lakes that extend along the border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This region is significant for its rich biodiversity and unique ecosystems, but it is also marked by complex political dynamics and disputes over resources, particularly water and land, which directly influence territorial boundaries between nations.
Berlin Conference: The Berlin Conference was a meeting held in 1884-1885 where European powers negotiated the partitioning of Africa, aiming to regulate European colonization and trade on the continent. It resulted in the establishment of artificial borders that disregarded existing ethnic and cultural divisions, leading to long-lasting territorial disputes and conflicts in Africa. This conference highlighted the interests of Western powers in exploiting Africa's resources while sidelining the continent's indigenous populations.
Biafra: Biafra was a secessionist state in southeastern Nigeria that existed from 1967 to 1970, following a civil war sparked by ethnic tensions and territorial disputes. The region declared independence primarily due to the marginalization of the Igbo people and the desire for self-determination, which ultimately led to a brutal conflict known as the Biafran War. This situation exemplifies the complexities of borders and territorial disputes in Africa, revealing how historical grievances and ethnic divisions can lead to violent confrontations.
Border conflicts: Border conflicts refer to disputes and tensions that arise over the demarcation and control of geographical boundaries between states or regions. These conflicts can stem from historical claims, ethnic divisions, and resource competition, and often escalate into violent confrontations or long-standing rivalries that shape political relations.
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS): The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is a regional political and economic union established in 1975, aimed at promoting economic integration and stability among its member states in West Africa. It facilitates trade, cooperation, and development initiatives while addressing issues like security, peace, and conflict resolution in the region. ECOWAS plays a crucial role in managing border disputes and fostering economic relationships, which significantly influence both political dynamics and regional development.
Ethiopia-Eritrea War: The Ethiopia-Eritrea War was a military conflict that erupted in 1998 and lasted until 2000, primarily over border disputes between Ethiopia and Eritrea. This war stemmed from unresolved issues following Eritrea's independence from Ethiopia in 1993, with both nations laying claim to the same territories, particularly the Badme region, reflecting the complex nature of national borders and the impact they have on relations between states.
Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD): The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) is a regional organization established in 1986 to promote cooperation and development in the East African region. It focuses on issues such as conflict resolution, humanitarian assistance, and economic integration among member states. By fostering collaboration, IGAD aims to address challenges like territorial disputes and enhance regional stability and development.
Irredentism: Irredentism is a political and ideological principle that advocates for the reclamation and reoccupation of territory that one nation considers to be historically or ethnically theirs but is currently under the control of another state. This concept often emerges in the context of national identity and historical grievances, leading to territorial disputes that can escalate into conflicts. Irredentism can significantly influence international relations, particularly in areas with disputed borders or diverse ethnic populations.
Katanga: Katanga is a province in the southeastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, known for its rich mineral resources, including copper and cobalt. Its significance lies not only in its economic wealth but also in its complex history of secession and conflict, which has heavily influenced the region's borders and territorial disputes within the DRC and with neighboring countries.
Nigeria-Cameroon Border Dispute: The Nigeria-Cameroon border dispute refers to the territorial conflict between Nigeria and Cameroon over a region known as the Bakassi Peninsula, which is located at the intersection of the two countries' maritime boundaries. This dispute has roots in colonial-era agreements and has led to significant tensions, conflicts, and international arbitration, highlighting the complexities of borders and territorial disputes in Africa.
Organization of African Unity (OAU): The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was established in 1963 to promote unity and cooperation among African states, focusing on political and economic integration. The OAU aimed to support the liberation of African nations from colonial rule and foster solidarity among member states, addressing issues like territorial integrity and political independence. Its foundation laid the groundwork for later institutions that furthered continental cooperation and efforts toward pan-Africanism.
Resource-based disputes: Resource-based disputes refer to conflicts that arise over the control and access to valuable natural resources, such as land, water, minerals, and oil. These disputes often emerge when the interests of different groups clash over the exploitation or ownership of resources, frequently exacerbated by existing political, social, and economic tensions. In regions where borders are contested or poorly defined, resource-based disputes can escalate into larger territorial conflicts.
Secession Movements: Secession movements refer to efforts by a group or region to withdraw from a larger political entity or state, aiming to establish its own independent governance. These movements often arise from deep-rooted issues such as ethnic identity, cultural differences, political disenfranchisement, or historical grievances. The drive for secession can lead to significant territorial disputes, as the boundaries and claims of various groups intersect and clash, impacting national unity and stability.
Somali Irredentism: Somali irredentism refers to the political and nationalist movement aimed at uniting all regions inhabited by ethnic Somalis into a single Somali state. This concept is rooted in historical grievances and aspirations related to the borders established during colonial times, particularly the division of Somali territories among several countries including Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Kenya. It highlights the role of national identity, border disputes, and the desire for territorial integrity among the Somali people.
Sudan-South Sudan Conflict: The Sudan-South Sudan Conflict refers to the ongoing disputes and violent clashes between the two countries, primarily over issues like borders, oil resources, and ethnic tensions. This conflict traces its roots back to colonial legacies, leading to South Sudan's independence from Sudan in 2011, and has continued to fuel tensions over territory and governance, particularly in border regions where ethnic groups straddle both sides.
Transnational Ethnic Groups: Transnational ethnic groups are communities that share a common ethnic identity and maintain connections across national borders, often spanning multiple countries. These groups can influence politics, culture, and social dynamics both in their home countries and in the nations they inhabit, leading to complex interactions related to identity, migration, and territorial disputes.
Uti Possidetis Principle: The uti possidetis principle is a legal doctrine used in international law that asserts that newly formed states should retain the borders that they held at the time of independence. This principle is particularly significant in post-colonial contexts, as it aims to maintain stability by preventing disputes over territorial boundaries, which can lead to conflict.