11.2 New York and Abstract Expressionism

Abstract Expressionism transformed modern art in post-World War II America, making New York the new art world center. This movement reflected broader cultural shifts, emphasizing individual expression and rejecting traditional artistic conventions.

New York's diverse neighborhoods and cultural institutions provided fertile ground for artistic innovation. The city's urban landscape directly influenced the scale and intensity of Abstract Expressionist works, embodying the energy of their surroundings.

Origins of Abstract Expressionism

• Abstract Expressionism emerged as a revolutionary art movement in post-World War II America, reshaping the landscape of modern art and establishing New York City as the new center of the art world
• This movement represented a significant shift in artistic focus from Europe to the United States, reflecting broader cultural and geopolitical changes of the mid-20th century
• Abstract Expressionism's development in New York City highlights the city's role as a crucible for artistic innovation and cultural exchange in the context of urban environments

Post-war cultural climate

• Characterized by a sense of anxiety and existential questioning in the aftermath of World War II and the onset of the Cold War
• Artists sought new forms of expression to convey complex emotions and ideas beyond traditional representational art
• Rejection of socialist realism and other politically charged artistic styles favored by totalitarian regimes
• Emphasis on individual freedom and subjective experience as a response to the collective trauma of war

European influences

• Surrealism played a crucial role in shaping Abstract Expressionism, particularly its emphasis on automatism and the unconscious
• Many European artists fleeing World War II settled in New York, bringing avant-garde ideas and techniques (André Breton, Max Ernst)
• Cubism's deconstruction of form and perspective influenced Abstract Expressionists' approach to space and composition
• Wassily Kandinsky's theories on abstraction and spirituality in art resonated with many Abstract Expressionist painters

New York School formation

• Informal group of artists working in New York City in the 1940s and 1950s, united by their interest in abstraction and expressive techniques
• Included painters, sculptors, and poets who often collaborated and influenced each other's work
• Regular meetings and discussions at the Cedar Tavern and the Club fostered a sense of community and shared artistic vision
• Key figures included Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Mark Rothko, and Franz Kline, among others

Key Abstract Expressionist artists

• Abstract Expressionism encompassed a diverse range of styles and approaches, united by a commitment to abstraction and emotional expression
• The movement's leading figures developed distinctive techniques and visual languages that pushed the boundaries of painting
• These artists' work reflected the urban energy and cultural dynamism of New York City, while also exploring universal themes and emotions

Jackson Pollock's drip technique

• Pioneered the "drip painting" or "action painting" method, laying canvases on the floor and applying paint from above
• Used unconventional tools like sticks, trowels, and syringes to create intricate webs of color and line
• Emphasized the physical act of painting as an integral part of the artwork's meaning and emotional impact
• Key works include "Lavender Mist" (1950) and "Blue Poles" (1952)
• Pollock's technique embodied the spontaneity and gestural freedom central to Abstract Expressionism

Willem de Kooning's gestural style

• Known for vigorous brushstrokes and complex, fragmented compositions that blur the line between abstraction and figuration
• Explored themes of the human figure, particularly in his controversial "Woman" series
• Constantly reworked his paintings, creating layers of paint that reveal the process of creation
• Notable works include "Woman I" (1950-52) and "Excavation" (1950)
• De Kooning's style exemplified the movement's emphasis on process and the artist's physical engagement with the canvas

Mark Rothko's color field paintings

• Developed a unique approach focusing on large, luminous fields of color that evoke profound emotional responses
• Created paintings with soft-edged rectangular forms that seem to float on the canvas surface
• Used thin layers of paint to create subtle variations in color and texture
• Famous works include "Orange and Yellow" (1956) and the Rothko Chapel murals
• Rothko's paintings aimed to create a contemplative, almost spiritual experience for the viewer

New York as artistic hub

• New York City emerged as the epicenter of the post-war art world, supplanting Paris as the global center of artistic innovation
• The city's diverse neighborhoods and cultural institutions provided a fertile ground for artistic experimentation and collaboration
• New York's urban landscape and energy directly influenced the scale, intensity, and dynamism of Abstract Expressionist works

Greenwich Village art scene

• Bohemian neighborhood that attracted artists, writers, and intellectuals throughout the 20th century
• Home to numerous artists' studios, galleries, and gathering places that fostered creative exchange
• The New School for Social Research hosted influential lectures and exhibitions related to modern art
• Washington Square Park served as a central meeting point for artists and a site of impromptu exhibitions and performances

57th Street galleries

• Became the commercial center of the New York art world in the 1940s and 1950s
• Key galleries included Betty Parsons Gallery, Sidney Janis Gallery, and Samuel Kootz Gallery
• These galleries played a crucial role in promoting and selling Abstract Expressionist works
• Organized groundbreaking exhibitions that introduced Abstract Expressionism to a wider audience
• The concentration of galleries in this area facilitated the movement's visibility and market success

Cedar Tavern gatherings

• Popular Greenwich Village bar that became a legendary meeting place for Abstract Expressionists and other artists
• Hosted intense discussions and debates about art, philosophy, and politics
• Fostered a sense of community and camaraderie among artists of different disciplines
• Notable regulars included Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, and poets like Frank O'Hara
• The tavern's role in the New York art scene exemplifies the importance of informal social spaces in urban creative communities

Characteristics of Abstract Expressionism

• Abstract Expressionism encompassed a range of styles and techniques united by a focus on spontaneous, emotive expression
• The movement rejected traditional artistic conventions in favor of more direct and immediate forms of visual communication
• Abstract Expressionist works often reflect the scale and energy of the urban environment in which they were created

Large-scale canvases

• Abstract Expressionists favored monumental paintings that engulf the viewer's field of vision
• Large canvases allowed for greater physical engagement with the painting process
• Scale contributed to the works' emotional impact and sense of immersion
• Reflected the influence of Mexican muralists and the desire to create public, socially engaged art
• Examples include Pollock's "Mural" (1943) and Barnett Newman's "Vir Heroicus Sublimis" (1950-51)

Spontaneous vs planned execution

• Many Abstract Expressionists emphasized spontaneity and improvisation in their creative process
• Action painters like Pollock and Franz Kline embraced chance and accident as part of their technique
• Color field painters like Rothko and Newman, while appearing more planned, still emphasized intuitive color relationships
• The tension between spontaneity and control reflected broader philosophical questions about free will and determinism
• Artists often combined elements of both approaches, balancing intuitive gestures with careful composition

Emphasis on process

• Abstract Expressionists viewed the act of painting itself as a crucial part of the artwork's meaning
• Many artists left visible evidence of their working process in the final painting (drips, smears, multiple layers)
• The physical engagement with materials was seen as a way to express the artist's inner emotional state
• This focus on process challenged traditional notions of artistic skill and finish
• Influenced later movements like Process Art and Performance Art

Theoretical foundations

• Abstract Expressionism was supported by a complex framework of philosophical, psychological, and aesthetic theories
• These theoretical underpinnings helped to legitimize the movement and provide a context for interpreting its works
• The intersection of these ideas reflects the broader intellectual climate of post-war America and its urban centers

Jungian psychology influence

• Carl Jung's theories of the collective unconscious and archetypes resonated with many Abstract Expressionists
• Artists sought to tap into universal symbols and emotions through their work
• The emphasis on spontaneity and automatism was seen as a way to access the unconscious mind
• Jackson Pollock's interest in Jungian analysis influenced his approach to painting and symbolism
• Rothko's color field paintings often evoke a sense of the sublime or transcendent, aligning with Jungian concepts

Existentialism and Abstract Expressionism

• The philosophy of existentialism, particularly the works of Jean-Paul Sartre, influenced many Abstract Expressionists
• Themes of individual freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning in an uncertain world resonated with artists
• The emphasis on subjective experience and authenticity in existentialist thought aligned with the movement's focus on personal expression
• Artists like Willem de Kooning and Franz Kline explored existential themes of anxiety and alienation in their work
• The raw, unfinished quality of many Abstract Expressionist paintings reflected existentialist ideas about the human condition

Greenberg's formalist critique

• Art critic Clement Greenberg played a crucial role in theorizing and promoting Abstract Expressionism
• Greenberg emphasized the importance of medium specificity and the flatness of the picture plane
• His formalist approach focused on the visual elements of painting rather than narrative or representational content
• Greenberg's writings helped to establish Abstract Expressionism as the logical culmination of modernist painting
• His theories influenced the development of Color Field painting and later minimalist tendencies

Abstract Expressionism's impact

• Abstract Expressionism marked a pivotal moment in art history, shifting the center of the art world from Paris to New York
• The movement's influence extended beyond painting to sculpture, poetry, music, and other forms of cultural expression
• Abstract Expressionism's legacy continues to shape contemporary art and debates about artistic value and meaning

American art on global stage

• Abstract Expressionism established American art as a major force in the international art world for the first time
• The movement was promoted internationally through exhibitions, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic efforts
• Abstract Expressionist works became symbols of American freedom and individualism during the Cold War
• The success of Abstract Expressionism paved the way for subsequent American art movements to gain global recognition
• International artists and movements responded to and reinterpreted Abstract Expressionist ideas and techniques

Influence on subsequent movements

• Color Field painting emerged as a distinct tendency within Abstract Expressionism, emphasizing large areas of flat color
• Post-painterly abstraction and Minimalism developed partly in response to Abstract Expressionism's gestural excess
• Pop Art both reacted against and built upon Abstract Expressionist ideas about scale and artistic gesture
• Neo-expressionism in the 1980s revived many Abstract Expressionist techniques and concerns
• Contemporary artists continue to engage with Abstract Expressionist legacies in various ways (Cecily Brown, Julie Mehretu)

Critical reception over time

• Initially met with skepticism and ridicule by many critics and the general public
• Gradually gained acceptance and critical acclaim throughout the 1950s
• By the 1960s, Abstract Expressionism was widely recognized as a significant movement in modern art
• Later critiques emerged, questioning the movement's masculinist rhetoric and exclusion of marginalized artists
• Recent scholarship has sought to expand the canon of Abstract Expressionism to include more diverse voices and perspectives

Patronage and promotion

• The success of Abstract Expressionism relied on a network of collectors, dealers, and institutions that supported and promoted the movement
• This system of patronage and promotion played a crucial role in establishing New York as the new center of the art world
• The relationship between artists, patrons, and institutions reflected broader changes in the art market and cultural landscape of post-war America

Peggy Guggenheim's support

• Influential art collector and gallerist who played a key role in promoting Abstract Expressionism
• Opened Art of This Century gallery in New York in 1942, showcasing both European modernists and emerging American artists
• Provided financial support and exhibition opportunities for artists like Jackson Pollock and William Baziotes
• Her 1943 exhibition of Pollock's work marked a turning point in his career and the recognition of Abstract Expressionism
• Guggenheim's international connections helped to promote Abstract Expressionist artists in Europe

MoMA's role in recognition

• The Museum of Modern Art in New York played a crucial role in legitimizing and promoting Abstract Expressionism
• Alfred H. Barr Jr., MoMA's founding director, and curator Dorothy Miller organized influential exhibitions of Abstract Expressionist work
• MoMA's 1952 exhibition "15 Americans" helped to establish the reputations of artists like Pollock, Rothko, and Clyfford Still
• The museum's acquisition and display of Abstract Expressionist works contributed to the movement's critical acceptance
• MoMA's international exhibition program helped to spread awareness of Abstract Expressionism globally

CIA and cultural diplomacy

• The Central Intelligence Agency covertly supported the promotion of Abstract Expressionism as part of Cold War cultural diplomacy
• The CIA saw Abstract Expressionism as a symbol of American freedom and individualism in contrast to Soviet socialist realism
• Funding was channeled through organizations like the Congress for Cultural Freedom to support exhibitions and publications
• This support contributed to the international spread and recognition of Abstract Expressionism
• The relationship between Abstract Expressionism and US foreign policy remains a subject of scholarly debate and investigation

Decline and legacy

• By the late 1950s, Abstract Expressionism began to face challenges from new artistic movements and changing cultural attitudes
• Despite its decline as a dominant movement, Abstract Expressionism left a lasting impact on art history and continues to influence contemporary practice
• The legacy of Abstract Expressionism is closely tied to New York's enduring status as a global art center

Rise of Pop Art

• Emerged in the late 1950s and early 1960s as a reaction against the perceived elitism and emotionalism of Abstract Expressionism
• Pop artists like Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein embraced popular culture imagery and mechanical reproduction techniques
• Challenged Abstract Expressionist notions of originality, gesture, and the artist's hand
• Shifted focus from the artist's inner world to the external world of mass media and consumer culture
• Pop Art's success marked a significant shift in the art world's attention and critical discourse

Abstract Expressionism's enduring influence

• Continued to influence subsequent generations of artists, both in terms of technique and philosophical approach
• Neo-expressionist painters of the 1980s (Julian Schnabel, Anselm Kiefer) revived aspects of Abstract Expressionist style
• The emphasis on process and materiality in Abstract Expressionism influenced the development of Process Art and Earth Art
• Contemporary artists continue to engage with and reinterpret Abstract Expressionist ideas (Gerhard Richter, Christopher Wool)
• Abstract Expressionism's focus on scale and immersive experience has influenced installation art and environmental works

New York's continued artistic prominence

• Despite challenges from other art centers, New York maintained its status as a global art capital
• The infrastructure of galleries, museums, and art schools established during the Abstract Expressionist era continued to support new generations of artists
• New York's diverse neighborhoods (SoHo, East Village, Chelsea) became centers for successive waves of artistic innovation
• The city's art market expanded significantly, with major auction houses and art fairs attracting global attention
• New York's multicultural population and constant influx of new talent have helped to maintain its artistic vitality and relevance

Gender and diversity issues

• Abstract Expressionism has been criticized for its male-dominated narrative and exclusion of diverse voices
• Recent scholarship and exhibitions have sought to reassess the movement's history and expand its canon
• These efforts reflect broader conversations about representation and inclusivity in the art world and urban cultural institutions

Women Abstract Expressionists

• Female artists like Lee Krasner, Helen Frankenthaler, and Joan Mitchell made significant contributions to Abstract Expressionism
• These artists often faced discrimination and lack of recognition during their careers
• Recent exhibitions and publications have sought to highlight the work of women Abstract Expressionists
• Artists like Grace Hartigan and Elaine de Kooning navigated complex relationships between their work and personal lives
• The reassessment of women's roles in Abstract Expressionism has led to a more nuanced understanding of the movement's development

Representation in exhibitions

• Early major exhibitions of Abstract Expressionism often featured few or no women artists
• Artists of color, such as Norman Lewis and Alma Thomas, were largely excluded from mainstream recognition
• Recent curatorial efforts have sought to address these imbalances through retrospectives and thematic exhibitions
• Museums and galleries have faced increasing pressure to diversify their collections and exhibition programs
• The representation of diverse artists in exhibitions reflects broader social movements for equality and inclusion

Critical reassessment of canon

• Scholars have challenged the traditional narrative of Abstract Expressionism as a predominantly white, male movement
• New research has uncovered the contributions of previously marginalized artists to the development of abstract art
• The influence of non-Western art forms on Abstract Expressionism has been more fully explored and acknowledged
• Intersectional approaches have examined how factors like gender, race, and sexuality shaped artists' experiences and reception
• This ongoing reassessment has led to a more complex and inclusive understanding of Abstract Expressionism's place in art history