🏺Greek Art and Architecture – 500 to 320 BC Unit 14 – Classical Greek Art: Techniques & Materials

Key Concepts and Timeline

• Classical Greek art period spans from 480 BC to 323 BC following the Archaic period and preceding the Hellenistic period
• Marked by idealized realism, balance, and harmony in sculpture and architecture
• Influenced by the democratic reforms of Cleisthenes in 508 BC leading to increased artistic expression and experimentation
  • Reforms reduced the power of the aristocracy and gave more rights to citizens
  • Led to a shift from mythological themes to more humanistic and naturalistic depictions
• Key events include the Persian Wars (490-479 BC), the Golden Age of Athens under Pericles (460-430 BC), and the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)
• Sculpture evolved from the stiff, stylized Archaic kouroi to more naturalistic, contrapposto figures (weight shift stance)
• Architectural orders (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian) became standardized and widely used in temples and public buildings
• Famous works include the Parthenon marbles (Elgin Marbles), the Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) by Polykleitos, and the Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles

Materials Used in Classical Greek Art

• Marble was the primary medium for sculpture due to its abundance, durability, and translucent quality
  • Pentelic marble from Mount Pentelicus near Athens was highly prized for its fine grain and slight golden hue
  • Parian marble from the island of Paros was also valued for its pure white color and smooth texture
• Bronze was used for smaller sculptures, decorative elements, and weaponry using the lost-wax casting technique
  • Allowed for more dynamic poses and intricate details compared to marble
  • Often used for honorific portraits and athletic victor statues (e.g., Riace Warriors)
• Chryselephantine (gold and ivory) was reserved for monumental cult statues of deities like the Athena Parthenos by Phidias
• Clay was used for pottery, figurines, and architectural decorations like acroteria and antefixes
  • Red-figure and white-ground techniques replaced the earlier black-figure style allowing for more detailed and expressive scenes
• Wood, though rarely surviving, was used for architectural elements, furniture, and some sculptures
• Precious materials like gold, silver, and gems were used for jewelry, vessels, and decorative inlays

Techniques and Craftsmanship

• Marble sculptures were created using a combination of carving, drilling, and abrasion
  • Roughed out using a pointed chisel, then refined with flat and toothed chisels
  • Final polishing was achieved with abrasives like sand, pumice, and emery
  • Iron and bronze tools were used for detailed work and drilling deep folds and crevices
• Bronze statues were made using the lost-wax (cire perdue) casting process
  • A clay core was covered in wax and sculpted to the desired form, then encased in a clay mold
  • The mold was fired, melting the wax and leaving a cavity that was filled with molten bronze
  • The mold was broken away, and the surface was refined through polishing and engraving
• Chryselephantine sculptures were constructed around a wooden core with carved ivory panels for flesh and hammered gold sheets for drapery and accessories
• Clay vessels were shaped on a potter's wheel, decorated, and fired in a kiln
  • Black-gloss was achieved through a three-stage firing process controlling the oxygen levels
  • Red-figure technique involved painting the background with slip and leaving the figures in the clay body color
• Hollow casting was introduced to reduce the amount of bronze needed and make larger statues more stable
• Encaustic painting, using pigmented wax, was used for panel paintings and decorative elements

Famous Works and Artists

• Myron's Discobolus (Discus Thrower) captures the moment of tension before release showcasing contrapposto and rhythmos (harmony of movement)
• Polykleitos' Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) exemplifies the Greek ideal of symmetria (commensurability of parts) and his canon of proportions
• Phidias, the master sculptor of the Parthenon marbles, also created the colossal chryselephantine statues of Athena Parthenos and Zeus at Olympia
  • Known for his ability to convey both power and grace in his figures
• Praxiteles introduced the female nude in his Aphrodite of Knidos and the Hermes with the Infant Dionysus showcasing a softer, more sensual style
• The Nike of Samothrace, now in the Louvre, demonstrates the mastery of wet drapery clinging to the body and conveying movement
• The Grave Stele of Hegeso exemplifies the emotive power and restrained elegance of Classical Greek funerary reliefs
• The Erechtheion's Caryatid Porch on the Athenian Acropolis features six maidens supporting the entablature, a unique architectural design

Symbolism and Themes

• Gods and heroes were depicted in idealized human form representing their divine attributes and roles
  • Zeus as the mature, bearded patriarch; Athena as the warrior goddess in full armor; Apollo as the youthful, athletic ideal
• Mythological scenes on temple pediments and friezes conveyed moral lessons and civic values
  • The Parthenon's west pediment depicts the contest between Athena and Poseidon for patronage of Athens symbolizing the city's power and wisdom
• Funerary monuments emphasized the virtues and roles of the deceased
  • Women were shown in domestic settings with jewelry boxes and servants; men as warriors or athletes with horses and armor
• The owl, aegis (shield), and olive tree were attributes of Athena as symbols of wisdom, protection, and peace
• The Labors of Herakles represented the triumph of civilization over barbarism and the hero's journey towards immortality
• The three Graces (Charites) embodied beauty, charm, and creativity often accompanying Aphrodite
• Votive offerings like figurines, reliefs, and miniature vessels expressed gratitude and devotion to the gods for answered prayers or success in battle

Influence on Later Art Movements

• The Classical style was revived during the Italian Renaissance as artists looked to ancient Greece and Rome for inspiration
  • Michelangelo's David and Raphael's School of Athens echo the contrapposto and idealized proportions of Classical sculpture
• Neoclassicism in the 18th and 19th centuries drew heavily on Greek and Roman models as a reaction against the excesses of the Baroque and Rococo
  • Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii and Antonio Canova's Perseus with the Head of Medusa exemplify the Neoclassical style
• Greek mythology and symbolism have been enduring subjects in Western art from the Renaissance to the present day
  • Botticelli's Birth of Venus, Bernini's Apollo and Daphne, and Picasso's Minotauromachy all draw on Classical themes
• The Elgin Marbles have been a source of inspiration and study for artists since their arrival in London in the early 19th century
  • Auguste Rodin, Henry Moore, and Antony Gormley have all cited their influence on their work
• Greek principles of harmony, proportion, and idealization have shaped the Western canon of beauty and aesthetics
  • The Golden Ratio, derived from Greek mathematics, has been applied in art, architecture, and design

Archaeological Discoveries and Preservation

• The systematic excavation of Greek sites began in the late 18th century with the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum
  • The Society of Dilettanti sponsored expeditions to Greece and Asia Minor, publishing detailed accounts and drawings
• The removal of the Parthenon marbles by Lord Elgin in the early 19th century sparked a debate about cultural heritage and repatriation that continues today
• German archaeologist Ernst Curtius led the first excavations at Olympia in 1875, uncovering the temple of Zeus and the famous Hermes of Praxiteles
• The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek astronomical computer, was recovered from a shipwreck in 1900
  • Its complexity and sophistication challenged assumptions about ancient technology
• The discovery of the Riace Warriors in 1972 off the coast of Calabria provided rare examples of original Greek bronze sculpture
• Modern conservation techniques like laser cleaning, 3D scanning, and digital reconstruction have enhanced our understanding and appreciation of Classical art
  • The Acropolis Museum in Athens uses glass flooring to showcase the archaeological remains beneath the building
• The repatriation of looted antiquities remains a contentious issue between museums, collectors, and source countries
  • The Euphronios Krater, a masterpiece of red-figure pottery, was returned to Italy by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2008 after evidence of its illegal excavation and export

Pop Quiz and Discussion Topics

1. Compare and contrast the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic styles of Greek sculpture. How do they reflect changes in Greek society and culture over time?
2. Discuss the significance of the Parthenon marbles and the debate surrounding their repatriation to Greece. What are the arguments for and against their return?
3. How did the Classical Greek canon of proportions and the concept of symmetria influence later Western art and aesthetics?
4. Analyze the representation of women in Classical Greek art. What roles and virtues were emphasized, and how do they reflect the status of women in ancient Greek society?
5. Explain the lost-wax casting technique and its advantages over marble sculpture. What famous works were created using this method?
6. How did Greek mythology and symbolism shape the subject matter and iconography of Classical art? Give examples of specific gods, heroes, and their attributes.
7. Discuss the relationship between art and politics in Classical Athens. How did the democratic system and the patronage of Pericles influence artistic production?
8. Compare the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders of architecture. What are their distinguishing features, and how were they used in Greek temples and public buildings?
9. Evaluate the impact of archaeological discoveries like the Antikythera mechanism and the Riace Warriors on our understanding of Classical Greek art and technology.
10. How have modern conservation techniques and digital technologies enhanced the study and preservation of Classical art? Give examples of specific projects or initiatives.