1.2 History and development of environmental archaeology
7 min read•august 15, 2024
Environmental archaeology emerged in the mid-20th century, blending archaeology with environmental science. It explores how past humans interacted with their surroundings, using techniques like and to uncover ancient landscapes and ecosystems.
Key figures like and shaped the field's development. They emphasized studying prehistoric economies, human-environment relationships, and the impact of environmental changes on ancient civilizations. These approaches continue to influence modern research.
Environmental Archaeology: A Historical Overview
Early Archaeological Investigations and Environmental Context
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Early archaeological investigations in the 19th and early 20th centuries often included observations of environmental context and the relationship between archaeological sites and their surrounding landscapes
These early studies laid the groundwork for the development of environmental archaeology as a distinct subfield by highlighting the importance of understanding the environmental setting of archaeological sites
Examples of early archaeological investigations that considered environmental context include the work of Flinders Petrie in Egypt and Mortimer Wheeler in India
The Emergence of Environmental Archaeology as a Distinct Subfield
Environmental archaeology emerged as a distinct subfield of archaeology in the mid-20th century, with roots in earlier studies of human-environment interactions and the impact of past human activities on landscapes
The development of radiocarbon dating in the 1940s and 1950s provided a new tool for establishing chronologies and correlating archaeological and environmental data, which was crucial for the growth of environmental archaeology
The "New Archaeology" movement of the 1960s and 1970s emphasized the importance of using scientific methods and interdisciplinary approaches in archaeology, including the incorporation of environmental data, further promoting the development of environmental archaeology as a subfield
Growing Interest in Human-Environment Interactions
The 1980s and 1990s saw a growing interest in the study of past human-environment interactions, with the development of new techniques such as and the application of GIS (Geographic Information Systems) in archaeological research
This period also saw an increasing recognition of the importance of understanding long-term human-environment interactions for addressing contemporary environmental challenges, such as climate change and sustainability
Examples of influential studies from this period include the work of Karl Butzer on the collapse of ancient civilizations and the research of on plant domestication in the Americas
Key Figures in Environmental Archaeology
Grahame Clark and Eric Higgs: Pioneers of Environmental Archaeology
Grahame Clark (1907-1995) was a British archaeologist who pioneered the study of prehistoric economies and the relationship between humans and their environment
His work emphasized the importance of understanding the environmental context of archaeological sites
He conducted influential studies of the Mesolithic period in Europe, including the excavation of the Star Carr site in England
(1908-1976) was a British archaeologist who developed the concept of ""
Site catchment analysis involves studying the resources available within a defined area around an archaeological site to understand patterns of human land use and subsistence
Higgs applied this approach to the study of Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in Europe and the Near East
Karl Butzer and Dolores Piperno: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Environmental Archaeology
Karl Butzer (1934-2016) was an American geographer and archaeologist who made significant contributions to the study of human-environment interactions in the ancient world
He emphasized the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to understanding past landscapes, incorporating data from fields such as geology, ecology, and climatology
His research focused on the Mediterranean region and the Near East, including studies of the rise and fall of ancient civilizations in relation to environmental change
Dolores Piperno (1949-present) is an American archaeobotanist who has made significant contributions to the study of plant domestication and the development of agriculture in the Americas
Her work has involved the application of new techniques, such as phytolith analysis, to the study of past plant use
She has conducted extensive research on the origins of agriculture in Central and South America, including studies of early maize cultivation
Theoretical and Methodological Shifts in Environmental Archaeology
From Description to Scientific Analysis
The early stages of environmental archaeology were characterized by a focus on describing the environmental context of archaeological sites and the relationship between past human activities and their surrounding landscapes
The "New Archaeology" movement of the 1960s and 1970s brought a greater emphasis on the use of scientific methods and interdisciplinary approaches in archaeology, including the incorporation of environmental data
This shift towards scientific analysis involved the application of new techniques, such as pollen analysis and faunal analysis, to the study of past environments
It also involved a greater emphasis on hypothesis testing and the use of quantitative methods in archaeological research
The Impact of New Analytical Techniques
The development of new analytical techniques has allowed for more detailed and quantitative studies of past human-environment interactions
Stable isotope analysis has been used to study past human and animal diets, as well as to reconstruct past climate conditions
The application of GIS (Geographic Information Systems) in archaeological research has allowed for the integration and analysis of large datasets, including environmental and spatial data
These new techniques have enabled researchers to ask new questions about past human-environment interactions and to develop more sophisticated models of past environmental change
The Influence of Post-Processual Archaeology
The rise of in the 1980s and 1990s led to a greater emphasis on the social and cultural dimensions of human-environment interactions, and the ways in which past societies perceived and engaged with their environments
This theoretical shift involved a greater focus on the symbolic and ideological aspects of human-environment relationships, such as the role of landscapes in shaping social identities and cultural practices
It also involved a critique of the notion of environmental determinism, which holds that environmental factors are the primary drivers of human behavior and cultural change
Recent theoretical developments, such as the concept of "niche construction," have emphasized the active role of humans in shaping their environments over time, rather than simply adapting to them
Niche construction theory suggests that humans and other organisms modify their environments in ways that affect their own evolution and that of other species
This perspective has been applied to the study of human-environment interactions in the past, such as the role of early agriculture in shaping landscapes and ecosystems
Technological Advancements in Environmental Archaeology
Dating Techniques and Chronology
The development of radiocarbon dating in the 1940s and 1950s provided a new tool for establishing chronologies and correlating archaeological and environmental data
Radiocarbon dating allowed researchers to date organic materials, such as wood and bone, and to construct more accurate chronologies of past environmental change and human activity
Other dating techniques, such as dendrochronology (tree-ring dating) and thermoluminescence dating, have also been used in environmental archaeology to establish chronologies and study past environmental conditions
Remote Sensing and Landscape Analysis
Advances in remote sensing technologies have provided new ways of visualizing and analyzing past landscapes and identifying archaeological sites
Satellite imagery has been used to identify patterns of land use and to map the distribution of archaeological sites across large areas
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) has been used to create high-resolution 3D models of landscapes and to identify features such as ancient roads and agricultural terraces
The application of GIS (Geographic Information Systems) in archaeological research has allowed for the integration and analysis of large datasets, including environmental and spatial data
GIS has been used to model past landscapes, to study the spatial distribution of archaeological sites and artifacts, and to analyze patterns of resource use and over time
Biomolecular Techniques and Paleoecology
The development of new analytical techniques, such as stable isotope analysis and ancient DNA analysis, has allowed for more detailed studies of past human diets, migration patterns, and population dynamics
Stable isotope analysis of human and animal bones can provide information about past diets and the use of different food sources, such as marine vs. terrestrial resources
Ancient DNA analysis can be used to study the genetic diversity of past populations and to trace migration patterns and population movements over time
Advances in paleoecological techniques, such as pollen analysis and plant macrofossil analysis, have provided new insights into past vegetation patterns and environmental conditions
These techniques have been used to reconstruct past landscapes and to study the impact of human activities, such as deforestation and agriculture, on vegetation and ecosystems over time
Digital Technologies and Visualization
The increasing use of digital technologies, such as 3D modeling and virtual reality, has provided new ways of visualizing and interpreting past environments and human-environment interactions
3D modeling has been used to create detailed reconstructions of archaeological sites and landscapes, allowing researchers to explore and analyze them in new ways
Virtual reality has been used to create immersive experiences of past environments and to engage public audiences in the interpretation of archaeological and environmental data
Digital technologies have also been used to create online databases and repositories for archaeological and environmental data, making it more accessible to researchers and the public
Examples include the Neotoma Paleoecology Database, which provides access to data on past environments and ecosystems, and the tDAR (The Digital Archaeological Record) repository, which provides access to archaeological data and publications
Key Terms to Review (19)
Anthrosols: Anthrosols are a type of soil that has been significantly altered by human activity, primarily through agricultural practices and settlement. These soils are characterized by their distinctive layers that reflect the influence of human-induced changes, such as organic matter from plant cultivation and waste. Understanding anthrosols is crucial in environmental archaeology as they reveal insights into past human behaviors, land use practices, and ecological impacts on the environment.
Archaeology as Human Ecology: Archaeology as human ecology is the study of the relationships between past human populations and their environments, focusing on how these interactions shaped cultural practices, settlement patterns, and resource management strategies. This approach emphasizes the dynamic connections between humans and their natural surroundings, revealing how ecological factors influenced human behavior and decision-making throughout history.
Cultural Ecology: Cultural ecology is the study of how human societies adapt to their environments through cultural practices, technologies, and social structures. This concept emphasizes the dynamic relationship between people and their surroundings, showing how environmental factors influence cultural development and vice versa.
Development of Palynology: The development of palynology refers to the scientific study of pollen and spores, which has evolved significantly since its inception in the early 20th century. This field plays a critical role in understanding past environments and climate changes, making it a key tool in reconstructing ancient ecosystems and human interactions with their environments. Palynology's integration into archaeology has enriched our knowledge of past climates, vegetation patterns, and even cultural practices, as it provides insights into how humans adapted to environmental changes over time.
Dolores Piperno: Dolores Piperno is a prominent archaeologist known for her significant contributions to the field of environmental archaeology, particularly in understanding the relationships between human societies and their environments over time. Her research emphasizes the role of ancient agricultural practices and their impact on ecosystems, which has been crucial in shaping the methodologies and theoretical frameworks within environmental archaeology.
Eric Higgs: Eric Higgs is a prominent figure in the field of environmental archaeology, known for his contributions to understanding the interactions between humans and their environment through time. His work emphasizes the integration of archaeological methods with environmental science to interpret how past societies adapted to and influenced their surroundings, thus shaping the development of environmental archaeology as a discipline.
GIS: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a technology used for capturing, storing, analyzing, and managing spatial and geographic data. In environmental archaeology, GIS plays a critical role in understanding the relationships between human activity and the environment, allowing archaeologists to visualize patterns over space and time, thus enhancing their insights into past cultures.
Grahame Clark: Grahame Clark was a prominent British archaeologist known for his pioneering work in the field of environmental archaeology during the mid-20th century. He is celebrated for integrating archaeological research with environmental science, particularly through his innovative approaches to studying prehistoric human-environment interactions and the use of palynology in understanding ancient ecosystems.
Introduction of Geoarchaeology: Geoarchaeology is an interdisciplinary field that combines geology and archaeology to understand the relationship between human activities and the geological environment. It focuses on how earth processes, such as sedimentation, erosion, and landscape formation, have influenced archaeological sites over time. By integrating geological techniques and methods into archaeological research, geoarchaeology provides insights into past human behaviors, environmental changes, and site formation processes.
Karl Butzer: Karl Butzer is a prominent figure in the field of environmental archaeology, known for his innovative approaches to understanding the interactions between human societies and their environments through time. His work has significantly contributed to the development of methods and theories that integrate environmental data with archaeological findings, helping to shed light on past human behavior and environmental change.
Land use change: Land use change refers to the transformation of natural land into human-modified landscapes, which can occur due to various factors such as agriculture, urban development, and deforestation. This concept encompasses the shifts in how land is utilized over time, impacting ecosystems, biodiversity, and human societies. Understanding these changes helps to reveal the historical context of environmental practices and how they relate to issues like resource management and sustainability.
Post-processual archaeology: Post-processual archaeology is an approach that emerged in the 1980s, emphasizing the subjective interpretation of archaeological data and the importance of human agency, cultural context, and individual experience. It contrasts with earlier processual approaches by rejecting the idea that scientific methods alone can explain the complexities of past societies, focusing instead on meaning-making and the social aspects of human behavior.
Processual Archaeology: Processual archaeology, also known as the New Archaeology, is an approach that emphasizes the use of scientific methods and theories to understand past human behavior and cultural change. This perspective seeks to develop generalizable explanations for archaeological phenomena by focusing on processes rather than merely describing artifacts or sites. By integrating natural and social sciences, processual archaeology connects historical developments, subsistence strategies of ancient communities, and advances in technology to provide a comprehensive understanding of how humans interacted with their environment over time.
Radiocarbon Dating: Radiocarbon dating is a scientific method used to determine the age of organic materials by measuring the amount of carbon-14 they contain. This technique connects various fields such as archaeology, geology, and climate science, allowing researchers to date artifacts and environmental changes accurately. By analyzing the carbon-14 decay, scientists can provide insights into human activity, climatic events, and the timeline of ecological changes over time.
Resource management: Resource management is the strategic planning and implementation of practices to sustainably utilize and conserve natural resources while addressing human needs and environmental impacts. This concept is vital for understanding how past societies interacted with their environments, ensuring resource availability for future generations.
Site catchment analysis: Site catchment analysis is a method used in archaeology to assess the resources available in the surrounding landscape of an archaeological site, focusing on how past societies interacted with their environment. This approach helps researchers understand settlement patterns, subsistence strategies, and resource management by examining factors such as topography, access to water, and the distribution of raw materials. It is essential for reconstructing past human behaviors and relationships with their ecological contexts.
Stable Isotope Analysis: Stable isotope analysis is a scientific technique used to measure the ratios of stable isotopes of elements within materials, which can provide insights into past environmental conditions, diets, and migration patterns. This method connects multiple disciplines, allowing researchers to reconstruct historical ecosystems and understand human interactions with the environment over time.
The archaeology of environment: The archaeology of environment is a sub-discipline that investigates how past human societies interacted with their natural surroundings, focusing on the relationships between people and their environments over time. This field combines archaeological evidence with environmental data to understand how climatic changes, landscapes, and ecosystems influenced human behavior, settlement patterns, and cultural development. By analyzing artifacts, ecofacts, and spatial distributions, researchers gain insights into the adaptive strategies of ancient populations in response to environmental shifts.
The Maya Collapse: The Maya Collapse refers to the gradual decline of the Classic Maya civilization, characterized by the abandonment of major cities and a significant decrease in population, occurring between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. This phenomenon is crucial for understanding environmental changes and their impacts on cultural development, as it intertwines ecological factors with social and political dynamics.