11.2 Egyptian language: Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian
3 min read•july 22, 2024
Ancient Egyptian language evolved over millennia, from 's simple structures to 's classical complexity. Each stage reflected societal changes, with Middle Egyptian becoming the standard for inscriptions and religious texts long after it ceased being spoken.
simplified grammar and incorporated new vocabulary, mirroring spoken language more closely. The written forms, from to , adapted alongside these linguistic shifts, showcasing the interplay between spoken and written Egyptian throughout history.
Stages and Development of the Egyptian Language
Stages of Egyptian language
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- Old Egyptian (2600 BCE - 2000 BCE)
- Earliest known stage of the ancient Egyptian language
- Primarily used during the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period
- Characterized by relatively simple sentence structures and a more limited vocabulary compared to later stages
- Middle Egyptian (2000 BCE - 1300 BCE)
- Considered the classical stage of the Egyptian language
- Prevalent during the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period
- Exhibits more complex grammatical structures and an expanded vocabulary in comparison to Old Egyptian
- Became the standard language for inscriptions and religious texts, even in later periods when the spoken language had evolved
- Late Egyptian (1300 BCE - 700 BCE)
- Developed from Middle Egyptian during the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period
- More closely reflects the spoken language of the time than previous stages
- Characterized by a simplification of grammatical structures, an increased reliance on prepositions, and the introduction of new vocabulary
Grammatical features across stages
- Old Egyptian
- Follows a Verb-Subject-Object (VSO) word order in sentences
- Demonstrates a more limited use of prepositions compared to later stages
- Features fewer distinct verb tenses and forms than Middle and Late Egyptian
- Middle Egyptian
- Showcases an increased use of subordinate clauses and conjunctions to create more complex sentence structures
- Develops a more elaborate verb system, including the introduction of the sdm.n.f form, which indicates completed actions
- Boasts an expanded vocabulary, particularly in the domains of religion and literature
- Late Egyptian
- Exhibits a shift towards Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) word order, aligning more closely with spoken language patterns
- Relies more heavily on prepositions and articles to convey grammatical relationships
- Demonstrates a simplification of the verb system, with fewer distinct forms compared to Middle Egyptian
- Incorporates new vocabulary related to foreign influences and everyday life
Historical influences on Egyptian
- Old Kingdom: The centralized state and strong royal power during this period likely influenced the standardization and codification of the Egyptian language
- Middle Kingdom: Increased trade and diplomatic contact with foreign powers led to the incorporation of new vocabulary and concepts into the language
- Second Intermediate Period: The Hyksos, a Semitic-speaking people, ruled parts of Egypt, introducing various Semitic loanwords into Egyptian
- New Kingdom: As the Egyptian empire expanded, the language was exposed to a wider range of foreign influences, including Nubian, Libyan, and Near Eastern languages
- Third Intermediate Period: Political fragmentation and the rise of regional dialects contributed to the development and spread of Late Egyptian as a distinct stage of the language
Spoken vs written Egyptian
- Hieroglyphic script
- Primarily used for monumental inscriptions, religious texts, and other formal contexts
- Closely associated with the standardized language of Middle Egyptian, even as the spoken language evolved
- Hieratic script
- A simplified, cursive form of hieroglyphs used for everyday writing, such as letters, administrative documents, and literary works
- Reflected the evolution of the spoken language more closely than hieroglyphs, as it was used for more practical purposes
- Demotic script
- A further simplification of the writing system that emerged during the Late Period (c. 600 BCE)
- Used for administrative, legal, and literary purposes, as well as for everyday communication
- Closely related to the spoken language of Late Egyptian, reflecting the ongoing evolution of the language
Key Terms to Review (17)
Book of the Dead: The Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text, consisting of a collection of spells and prayers designed to guide the deceased through the afterlife and ensure a successful resurrection. It reflects key beliefs about death and the afterlife, drawing heavily on the Egyptian pantheon, serving as a major literary work, evolving alongside mortuary practices, and written in various stages of the Egyptian language.
Demotic Script: Demotic script is a cursive form of the ancient Egyptian writing system that developed around 650 BCE and was used for administrative, legal, and literary texts. It represents a significant evolution in Egyptian writing, transitioning from more elaborate hieroglyphics to a simpler and more efficient style that allowed for faster writing and record-keeping.
Dynastic period: The dynastic period refers to the era in ancient Egyptian history characterized by the rule of a series of pharaohs from specific families or dynasties. Each dynasty marked significant developments in governance, culture, and monumental architecture, reflecting the political stability and cultural achievements of the time. This period is crucial for understanding the evolution of the Egyptian language through Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian stages.
Hellenistic Period: The Hellenistic Period refers to the era from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE to the rise of the Roman Empire, marked by the spread of Greek culture and influence across the Mediterranean and Near East. This time was characterized by significant cultural and intellectual exchanges, including advancements in science, philosophy, and art, as well as changes in language and writing systems.
Hieroglyphs: Hieroglyphs are a system of writing used in ancient Egypt that combines logographic and alphabetic elements, consisting of symbols that represent sounds, objects, and ideas. This writing system played a crucial role in recording the history, culture, and religious practices of ancient Egyptians, influencing interpretations in later cultures and the fascination with Egypt in modern times.
James P. Allen: James P. Allen is a prominent Egyptologist and scholar known for his extensive work on the ancient Egyptian language and its evolution throughout different historical periods, particularly Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian. His research focuses on the grammar, vocabulary, and writing systems of these languages, contributing significantly to our understanding of ancient texts and inscriptions.
Late Egyptian: Late Egyptian is a stage of the ancient Egyptian language that evolved from Middle Egyptian, used primarily during the New Kingdom period and into the Greco-Roman era. This phase of the language reflects significant changes in grammar, vocabulary, and script, which marks a shift in both literary and everyday usage, showcasing how the language adapted over time to meet the needs of its speakers.
Middle Egyptian: Middle Egyptian is the classical phase of the Egyptian language, used primarily from around 2000 to 1350 BCE. This stage is marked by its literary and religious texts, and it serves as a bridge between Old Egyptian and Late Egyptian, highlighting the evolution of the language in writing and spoken forms.
Morphology: Morphology is the study of the structure and formation of words, focusing on how they are built from smaller units called morphemes. In the context of Egyptian language, morphology plays a crucial role in understanding how Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian developed through changes in word formation, syntax, and grammatical structures. This study helps to decipher ancient texts and understand the evolution of the language over time.
Old Egyptian: Old Egyptian refers to the earliest stage of the ancient Egyptian language, primarily used during the Old Kingdom period, from around 2686 to 2181 BCE. This form of the language is characterized by its hieroglyphic writing and is crucial for understanding early Egyptian literature, religious texts, and monumental inscriptions.
Paleography: Paleography is the study of ancient writing systems and the deciphering of historical manuscripts. It plays a crucial role in understanding the evolution of scripts and the languages that utilize them, allowing scholars to analyze the development of written forms across different periods, including Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian.
Phonology: Phonology is the study of the sound systems of languages, focusing on how sounds function and pattern within a particular language. In the context of ancient Egyptian languages, understanding phonology helps in deciphering the pronunciation and structure of Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian, shedding light on their evolution and usage across different periods.
Pyramid texts: Pyramid texts are a collection of ancient Egyptian religious writings, primarily found in the pyramids of the Old Kingdom, that served as funerary literature designed to assist the deceased pharaoh in the afterlife. These texts reflect the beliefs and rituals surrounding death and resurrection, showcasing the relationship between the pharaoh and the gods, as well as providing instructions for navigating the afterlife.
Script evolution: Script evolution refers to the gradual development and transformation of writing systems over time, adapting to changes in language, culture, and technology. In the context of Egyptian language, script evolution is evident in the transition from hieroglyphs used in Old Egyptian, through the cursive forms in Middle Egyptian, to the more simplified and standardized scripts seen in Late Egyptian. Each stage reflects shifts in usage and function, from monumental inscriptions to administrative and literary texts.
Sir Alan Gardiner: Sir Alan Gardiner was a prominent British Egyptologist and linguist, best known for his groundbreaking work on the Egyptian language, particularly in its hieroglyphic script. His contributions significantly advanced the understanding of Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian, helping to establish the foundations of modern Egyptology through his studies and publications on grammar, vocabulary, and translation techniques.
Translation: Translation is the process of converting text or spoken content from one language to another while maintaining the original meaning. In the context of ancient Egyptian languages, translation is vital for understanding historical texts and inscriptions, allowing scholars to interpret Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian scripts and communicate their significance effectively.
Transliteration: Transliteration is the process of converting text from one writing system into another, preserving the original sounds as closely as possible. In the context of ancient Egyptian languages, it is crucial for understanding the pronunciation of hieroglyphs and hieratic scripts from Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian. This method helps scholars and students alike to read and pronounce Egyptian words without needing to learn the complex scripts themselves.