The period between 1800 and 1848 witnessed a significant transformation in American democracy, often called the "Era of the Common Man." During this time, the nation moved away from its founding era's more restrictive political participation toward a broader, more inclusive democratic system—at least for white men. This expansion of participatory democracy fundamentally altered American politics and created the foundations for modern political parties and campaigning.
The Democratization of American Politics
Before the 1820s, political participation was limited by property requirements and other restrictions. Several developments helped transform American democracy during this period:
| Democratic Reform | Previous Practice | New Development | Impact |
|---|---|---|---|
| Expanded Suffrage | Property ownership required to vote | Property qualifications abolished in many states | Dramatically increased the voting eligible population |
| Voting Methods | Voice voting or public ballots | Introduction of secret ballot | Reduced intimidation and vote manipulation |
| Presidential Selection | State legislatures chose electors | Popular vote determined electors (except South Carolina) | Connected presidential politics to popular will |
| Candidate Nomination | "King Caucus" or legislative selection | Party nominating conventions | Broadened participation in candidate selection |
| Government Positions | Dominated by social elites | More accessible to common citizens | Created more representative government |
These changes resulted in dramatic increases in voter participation:
- Voter turnout rose from about 25% of eligible voters in the 1824 election to over 80% by the 1840s
- Political engagement became a central part of American male identity
- Mass rallies, parades, and political spectacles emerged as campaign tools
The Election of 1824: A Turning Point
The Election of 1824 marked a critical transition in American politics and helped usher in this new democratic era:
- Candidates:
- Andrew Jackson: War hero, considered a man of the people
- John Quincy Adams: Son of former president, experienced statesman
- William H. Crawford: Secretary of the Treasury
- Henry Clay: Speaker of the House, "The Great Compromiser"
- Results:
- Jackson won the most popular votes (41%) and electoral votes (99)
- No candidate received an electoral majority
- Election decided by House of Representatives
- Adams elected president with Clay's support
- "Corrupt Bargain":
- Clay appointed as Adams' Secretary of State
- Jackson supporters claimed a corrupt deal had been made
- Allegations damaged Adams' presidency from the start
- Created deep political divisions and personal animosity
The controversy surrounding the election ended the "Era of Good Feelings" and accelerated the formation of new political parties.
The Presidency of John Quincy Adams (1825-1829)
Adams' presidency was hampered by the controversial circumstances of his election and by his approach to governance:
- Governing Philosophy:
- Advocated for active federal government promoting economic development
- Proposed national university, observatory, and internal improvements
- Supported protective tariffs and national bank
- Emphasized merit over party loyalty in appointments
- Political Challenges:
- Faced opposition from Jacksonians who controlled Congress
- Refused to use patronage to build political support
- Rejected the "spoils system" of political appointments
- Struggled to implement his ambitious agenda
- Opposition Organization:
- Martin Van Buren organized "Albany Regency" to oppose Adams
- Effectively blocked Adams' initiatives in Congress
- Built political machine that would support Jackson
- Laid groundwork for modern Democratic Party
Adams' principled but politically naive approach to governance ultimately undermined his effectiveness and contributed to his defeat in 1828.
The "Revolution of 1828"
The presidential election of 1828 has been called a "revolution" because it represented the triumph of the new democratic politics:
- Campaign Innovations:
- First true mass political campaign in American history
- Extensive use of newspapers and campaign propaganda
- Large public rallies, parades, and barbecues to mobilize voters
- Creation of permanent party organizations in states and localities
- Campaign Issues and Tactics:
- Jackson portrayed as the champion of the common man
- Adams depicted as an aristocratic, intellectual elite
- Highly personal attacks on both candidates
- Scandalous accusations against candidates' wives
- Regional appeals targeting different voter segments
- Election Outcome:
- Record voter turnout (approximately three times that of 1824)
- Jackson won decisive victory (56% of popular vote, 178 electoral votes)
- Adams became second president to lose re-election (after his father)
- Demonstrated the power of popular politics and organization
This election established the template for future American political campaigns and confirmed the shift toward mass participatory democracy.
The Rise of the Second Party System
The political battles of the 1820s gave birth to the Second Party System, which shaped American politics through the 1850s:
- Democratic Party:
- Formed around Andrew Jackson's leadership
- Appealed to farmers, workers, and frontier settlers
- Advocated limited government and states' rights
- Opposed national bank and protective tariffs
- Supported territorial expansion
- National Republican/Whig Party:
- Organized in opposition to Jackson
- Drew support from merchants, manufacturers, and professionals
- Favored active federal role in economic development
- Supported protective tariffs, national bank, and internal improvements
- Led by Henry Clay and later Daniel Webster
The competition between these parties increased political engagement and voter participation to unprecedented levels. Unlike the First Party System, which was largely limited to elites, this new system mobilized ordinary citizens and created a true mass politics.
Limitations of Democratic Expansion
While democracy expanded significantly during this period, important limitations remained:
- Excluded Groups:
- Women remained disenfranchised
- Free Black Americans lost voting rights in many Northern states
- Native Americans denied citizenship
- Enslaved people had no political rights
- Regional Variations:
- Northeastern states generally most democratic
- Southern states maintained more elite-dominated politics
- Western states often most aggressive in expanding franchise
- Informal Barriers:
- Social pressure and intimidation limited free expression
- Economic dependence constrained political independence for many
- Religious and ethnic prejudice affected political participation
These limitations reflected the contradictions of American democracy in the early 19th century - revolutionary in its expansion of the franchise for white men, yet exclusionary toward other groups.
The transformation of American politics between 1800 and 1848 created a distinctively American democratic culture characterized by high participation, competitive parties, and campaign spectacle. This "democratization" fundamentally altered the relationship between citizens and government, establishing patterns that would influence American politics for generations to come. While its benefits were initially limited primarily to white men, the democratic principles established during this period would eventually be invoked by excluded groups in their own struggles for political inclusion..
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Key Terms to Review (23)
Albany Regency: The Albany Regency was a powerful political faction that emerged in New York during the early 19th century, primarily associated with the Democratic-Republican Party. This group, led by influential figures such as Martin Van Buren, played a crucial role in expanding democracy by promoting party organization and voter mobilization, thus paving the way for greater participation in the political process.
Andrew Jackson: Andrew Jackson was the seventh President of the United States, serving from 1829 to 1837, and is known for his influential role in shaping American politics during the early 19th century. His presidency is often associated with the rise of populism and the expansion of democracy, as well as significant controversies surrounding his policies, particularly regarding Native American removal and federal authority.
Battle of New Orleans: The Battle of New Orleans was a significant military conflict fought between January 8 and January 18, 1815, during the War of 1812, where American forces led by General Andrew Jackson achieved a decisive victory over the British. This battle not only boosted American nationalism but also marked the end of the War of 1812, highlighting the growing sense of identity and pride in the young nation.
Corrupt Bargain: The Corrupt Bargain refers to the alleged agreement made during the 1824 presidential election in which John Quincy Adams was accused of striking a deal with Henry Clay to secure the presidency in exchange for appointing Clay as his Secretary of State. This event is often seen as a pivotal moment in American politics, as it raised concerns about the integrity of electoral processes and the influence of political elites, impacting the expanding democracy and shaping the role of federal power under Jackson's presidency.
Democratic Party: The Democratic Party is one of the two major political parties in the United States, founded in the early 19th century. It has evolved significantly over time, advocating for issues such as individual rights, social justice, and a more active role of government in the economy. The party's development has been influenced by key historical events and shifts in public sentiment, especially during periods of expanding democracy, cultural transformation, and major conflicts over civil rights and social issues.
Democratic-Republican Party: The Democratic-Republican Party was a political party founded in the early 1790s that advocated for agrarian interests, limited federal government, and states' rights. It emerged in opposition to the Federalist Party and played a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of the early United States, influencing governance and expanding democratic principles during its prominence.
Election of 1824: The Election of 1824 was a pivotal presidential election in the United States where four candidates vied for the presidency, resulting in a controversial decision by the House of Representatives. This election is significant as it marked the first time in American history that the winner did not secure a majority of the popular vote or the Electoral College, leading to intense political rivalries and discussions about democracy and regional interests. The outcomes and disputes of this election foreshadowed the rising tensions between different factions and interests within the country, reshaping the political landscape.
Era of the Common Man: The Era of the Common Man refers to a period in American history during the 1820s and 1830s characterized by the rise of political democracy and greater participation of ordinary citizens in the political process. This era marked a shift away from elitist politics dominated by wealthy landowners and established politicians, leading to increased voter participation and the emergence of new political parties that sought to represent the interests of the common people. The presidency of Andrew Jackson is often seen as a defining moment of this era, promoting the idea that government should be more responsive to the needs of everyday Americans.
Henry Clay: Henry Clay was a prominent American statesman, lawyer, and orator who served as a U.S. Congressman and Senator in the early 19th century. Known as the 'Great Compromiser' for his role in negotiating key legislative compromises, he played a vital role in shaping American politics and addressing sectional tensions during his time.
John Quincy Adams: John Quincy Adams was the sixth President of the United States, serving from 1825 to 1829, and is known for his role in promoting national modernization and economic development. His presidency is marked by a commitment to expanding democracy through his support for educational initiatives, infrastructure projects, and scientific advancement. Despite his efforts, he faced significant opposition from political rivals, particularly from the supporters of Andrew Jackson, who challenged his policies and presidency.
Jacksonian Democracy: Jacksonian Democracy refers to the political movement during the presidency of Andrew Jackson in the 1820s and 1830s that emphasized greater democracy for the common man and sought to expand suffrage, primarily to white male citizens. It challenged the established elite's influence in politics and promoted ideas such as the rotation of officeholders, the opposition to monopolies, and a more hands-off approach to government, which significantly shaped the political landscape.
Martin Van Buren: Martin Van Buren was the eighth President of the United States, serving from 1837 to 1841. He was a key figure in the development of the Democratic Party and a close ally of Andrew Jackson, playing a crucial role in the political landscape that expanded democratic participation and emphasized the power of the presidency during a period of significant change.
Political Nominating Conventions: Political nominating conventions are formal gatherings of political parties where delegates come together to nominate candidates for various offices, most notably the presidency. These conventions play a crucial role in the electoral process, allowing parties to unify their members, establish their platforms, and energize their base ahead of elections. The shift from closed-door selections to public conventions significantly contributed to expanding democracy by involving a larger segment of the party and the public in the candidate selection process.
Property Requirements: Property requirements were legal stipulations that mandated individuals to own a certain amount of property in order to qualify for voting and hold public office. These restrictions were rooted in the belief that property ownership indicated a stake in society and a greater level of responsibility, impacting who could participate in the democratic process and shaping the political landscape as democracy expanded.
Revolution of 1828: The Revolution of 1828 refers to the election of Andrew Jackson, which marked a significant shift in American politics towards greater democracy and the rise of populism. This election is often viewed as a pivotal moment in the expansion of democracy, where the voting rights of white male citizens increased, leading to a more participatory political culture that emphasized the voice of the 'common man.' The Revolution of 1828 symbolized the growing influence of the electorate in government, reshaping political dynamics in the United States.
Secret Ballot: The secret ballot is a voting method in which a voter's choices are confidential, allowing them to cast their votes without fear of coercion or retaliation. This system enhances the democratic process by ensuring that individuals can express their preferences freely, which is essential for fair elections and expanding democratic participation.
Second Party System: The Second Party System refers to the political party framework in the United States from the 1820s to the 1850s, characterized primarily by the rivalry between the Democratic Party and the Whig Party. This period marked a significant evolution in American political life, featuring heightened voter participation and a clearer delineation of political ideologies, which were influenced by social and economic changes of the time.
Seminole Wars: The Seminole Wars were a series of conflicts between the United States and the Seminole Indians in Florida during the 19th century, specifically from 1817 to 1858. These wars arose from tensions over land disputes, the forced removal of Native Americans, and resistance to U.S. expansion, reflecting broader themes of conflict and democracy in the era.
Spoils System: The Spoils System is a practice in which political leaders give government jobs and favors to their supporters, often without regard for their qualifications. This system became prominent in the early 19th century and was closely associated with the expansion of democracy, as it allowed for greater participation of ordinary citizens in government roles, but it also raised concerns about corruption and inefficiency.
Temperance Movement: The Temperance Movement was a social and political campaign advocating for the reduction or prohibition of alcohol consumption, particularly prominent in the 19th and early 20th centuries. This movement emerged as a response to the negative impacts of alcohol on society, including crime, poverty, and family disintegration, and it played a significant role in broader reform efforts during this period.
Universal Male Suffrage: Universal male suffrage refers to the right of all adult males to vote, regardless of property ownership, wealth, or social status. This concept emerged during the 19th century as part of a broader movement toward expanding democratic rights and participation in government, challenging existing restrictions that limited voting to privileged classes. The push for universal male suffrage represented a significant shift towards inclusivity in political representation, emphasizing the belief that all men should have an equal voice in shaping their government and society.
William H. Crawford: William H. Crawford was an American politician and statesman who served as Secretary of the Treasury and was a candidate in the contentious election of 1824. His political career and policies were significant during a time when the country was grappling with issues of expanding democracy and the role of the federal government.
Workingmen's Party: The Workingmen's Party was a political organization established in the United States during the 1870s, aimed at representing the interests and rights of laborers and working-class citizens. It emerged in response to the growing economic disparities and harsh working conditions faced by laborers in the wake of industrialization, advocating for political reforms that would empower workers and promote social justice. This party played a crucial role in the broader movement toward expanding democracy by challenging the existing political structures that favored elite interests over those of ordinary workers.