2.7 Colonial Society and Culture

The Development of a Colonial Identity

By the mid-18th century, colonial America had developed a complex cultural identity that balanced European influences with distinctly American experiences. While British cultural traditions remained strong, especially in coastal cities, the diverse European immigrants, religious movements, and frontier experiences created societies that were increasingly different from those in Europe. This evolving colonial identity would provide the foundation for later revolutionary ideals.

Robert Feke, Familienporträt des Isaac Royall, 1741, via Wikimedia.

Pluralism and Cultural Exchange

The presence of different European religious and ethnic groups contributed significantly to colonial pluralism and intellectual exchange. These diverse influences would be further enhanced by the First Great Awakening and the spread of European Enlightenment ideas.

✋🏻 ✋🏼 ✋🏽 Ethnic Diversity

Colonial America became increasingly diverse through continued immigration from various European regions. While initially dominated by English settlers, by 1755 nearly half the white population came from other backgrounds:

Colonial society reflected this diversity in its languages, religious practices, architectural styles, and cultural traditions. Germans established tight-knit communities in Pennsylvania, maintaining their language and customs. Scots-Irish settlers pushed into the frontier regions, bringing distinctive music, storytelling traditions, and a fierce independence that would shape backcountry culture.

⛪ Religious Pluralism and the Great Awakening

Religious diversity characterized the colonies despite the presence of established churches in many regions. The religious landscape included:

• Congregational Churches dominant in New England (tax-supported)
• Anglican Church established in most southern colonies
• Quakers prominent in Pennsylvania and parts of New Jersey
• Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist communities growing throughout the colonies
• Small but significant Catholic communities, especially in Maryland
• Jewish congregations in port cities like New York and Newport

The First Great Awakening of the 1730s-40s transformed this religious landscape. Dynamic preachers like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield traveled throughout the colonies, delivering emotional sermons that emphasized personal conversion. Edwards' famous "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" sermon exemplified this approach, using vivid imagery to inspire religious fear and devotion.

The revival movement had profound effects beyond religion:

• Created new Protestant denominations and divided existing ones
• Challenged established religious authorities and traditional hierarchies
• Promoted ideas about spiritual equality that shaped political thinking
• Encouraged literacy as believers studied scripture independently
• Connected colonies through common religious experiences
• Provided leadership opportunities for common people as new preachers emerged

🔭 Enlightenment Influences

Alongside religious revival, European Enlightenment ideas spread through colonial society. Colonial thinkers embraced concepts like:

• Rational thinking and scientific inquiry over tradition
• Natural rights and political liberty
• Skepticism toward established authority
• Ideas about social progress and improvement

These ideas found expression in growing colonial print culture, philosophical societies, and educational institutions. Benjamin Franklin exemplified Enlightenment thinking through his scientific experiments, practical inventions, and civic improvements in Philadelphia.

Comparison of Cultural Influences in Colonial Regions

Anglicization and the Development of Colonial Autonomy

The British colonies experienced a gradual Anglicization over time while simultaneously developing autonomous political communities with distinctive American characteristics.

British cultural influence remained strong, especially in coastal cities and among elites. Colonial merchants and wealthy planters often:

• Built homes following English architectural patterns
• Imported English furniture, dishware, and textiles
• Followed English fashion trends and social customs
• Sent their sons to England for education
• Read English literature and newspapers

This Anglicization accelerated in the early 18th century as colonial prosperity increased and trade connections strengthened. However, even as colonists adopted British goods and cultural practices, they were developing autonomous communities based on:

• Intercolonial Commercial Ties: Trade networks connected colonial ports and agricultural regions, creating economic relationships independent of British oversight.
• Transatlantic Print Culture: Growing literacy rates and local printing presses spread ideas throughout the colonies, fostering a shared colonial discourse on political and social issues.
• Adapted Political Structures: While modeled on British forms, colonial governments evolved to meet local needs:
  • Colonial assemblies gained increasing control over taxation and spending
  • Local political institutions like town meetings provided extensive self-governance
  • Distance from Britain necessitated practical autonomy in day-to-day governance

Growing Tensions with Britain

By the mid-18th century, the goals and interests of European leaders and colonists increasingly diverged, leading to growing mistrust on both sides of the Atlantic.

Image Courtesy of Teach Social Studies

Sources of Colonial Dissatisfaction

Colonists expressed increasing dissatisfaction over several key issues:

• Territorial settlements: British authorities restricted western expansion through measures like the Proclamation Line of 1763, frustrating land-hungry colonists.
• Frontier defense: Disagreements arose over who should bear the costs of protecting frontier settlements from Native American resistance and European rivals.
• Self-rule: Colonial assemblies sought greater autonomy while British authorities attempted to reassert control, creating constitutional tensions.
• Trade restrictions: Mercantilist policies like the Navigation Acts limited colonial economic opportunities and created resentment, though enforcement was often lax under "salutary neglect."

Key Conflicts

Several conflicts illustrated the growing tensions between colonial and imperial visions:

• When England replaced the New England Confederation with the Dominion of New England in 1686, colonists resented the loss of local control. The dominion's governor, Sir Edmund Andros, restricted town meetings, questioned land titles, imposed new taxes, and enforced trade laws – all policies that colonists viewed as tyrannical.
• Colonial westward expansion created ongoing tensions as settlers pushed into Native American territories. Conflicts like King Philip's War (1675) and Bacon's Rebellion (1676) highlighted disagreements between colonial and imperial approaches to territorial expansion and Native relations.
• Trade restrictions under mercantilism provoked widespread smuggling and evasion of imperial regulations, establishing patterns of resistance to imperial economic control.

Ideological Foundations of Resistance

Colonial resistance to imperial control drew on multiple intellectual sources:

• Local experiences of self-government established expectations of political participation and representation.
• Enlightenment political thought provided theoretical frameworks for understanding rights and legitimacy of government.
• Growing religious diversity and independence fostered ideas about freedom of conscience and resistance to imposed authority.
• Colonial political discourse increasingly included criticism of perceived corruption in the imperial system and assertions of colonial rights as Englishmen.

These tensions and developing ideologies would lay crucial groundwork for the more dramatic imperial conflicts that would emerge after 1754, as the Seven Years' War transformed the relationship between Britain and its American colonies.

🎥Watch AP US History teacher Pat DiFilippo examine and analyze the similarities and differences between colonial American regions.