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Table of Contents
Unit 1 Overview: Early Contact with the New World (1491-1607)
1.1 Context: European Encounters in the Americas
1.2 Native American Societies Before European Contact
1.3 European Exploration in the Americas
1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest
1.5 Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System
1.6 Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans
1.7 Causation in Period 1

🇺🇸ap us history review

1.2 Native American Societies Before European Contact

Verified for the 2025 AP US History exam•Citation:

Native peoples in the Southwest began constructing these highly defensible cliff dwellings in 1190 CE and continued expanding and refurbishing them until 1260 CE before abandoning them around 1300 CE. Andreas F. Borchert, Mesa Verde National Park Cliff Palace. Wikimedia. Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Germany.

The marker of 1491 serves as a division between the Native American world and the world that came after European exploration, colonization, and invasion. In 1491, both North and South America were inhabited by flourishing and highly complex civilizations. In particular, North America was home to hundreds of tribes, cities, and societies. First Nation Peoples in North America are often grouped by similarities in their adaptations to the environments (desert vs arctic vs woodland societies). 

Indigenous societies in North America before Europeans were vastly more complex than College Board requires for the exam, which focuses on the major tribes and societies within seven identified geographical areas and some basic components of their lifestyles.

While some of these details are lost to history due to the events that unfold on this continent after contact with Europeans, there are many, many more histories that are still preserved by indigenous people and communities today, even if they are not covered in the APUSH curriculum.

Permanent Settlements

The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among indigenous societies. Through farming corn, beans, maize, and squash, tribes like the Apache, Navajo, and Pueblo built permanent settlements into the ledges of Mesa Verde.

Along the Northwest coast and in California, tribes developed communities along the ocean to hunt whales and salmon, building wooden lodgings, totem poles, and canoes from surrounding forests. These tribes included the Tlingit, Chinook, Coos, and Chumash.

In the Northeast, Mississippi Valley cultures built elaborate earthworks and mounds, demonstrating how the rich floodplain environment supported population densities that could organize large-scale construction projects. These mounds served as ceremonial centers, burial sites, and in some cases, elevated platforms for elite residences, showing how environmental abundance translated into social complexity.

Nomadic Hunting and Gathering Tribes

In contrast to the fixed societies of the Southwest, Natives in the Great Plains and surrounding grasslands retained mobile, nomadic lifestyles. Based on the aridity, or dryness, of the conditions, the Great Plains was more suitable for hunting and gathering, with food sources consisting of rabbits, snakes, birds, nuts, and insects. The Shoshone lived in cone-shaped huts built with wooden poles, covered with dried grasses and brush that could be packed and transported as the tribe moved. 

The major groups and regions of First Nations Peoples to know for AP US History are: 

Geographical AreaArctic and SubarcticNorthwest Coast and CaliforniaPlateauGreat BasinSouthwestNortheast (Eastern Woodlands)SoutheastGreat Plains
Major TribesEskimo and CreeTlingit, Chinook, Coos, & ChumashNez PerceShoshoneApache, Navajo, and PuebloIroquois, MohawkCherokee, SeminoleSioux, Cheyenne
HousingIgloosWooden houses; often sheltering several related familiesBison-high teepees; rounded homes of woodCone-shaped huts built with wooden poles, covered with dried grasses and brush.Built homes on the ledges of Mesa VerdeMound builders for burialReed and bark huts.Teepees
Food SupplyHunting and fishing.Whales and other sea mammals; salmonSalmon (fish)Rabbits, snakes, birds, nuts, and insectsCorn, beans, maize, and squashDeer; corn, beans, squash, tobaccoTobacco, squash, melons, cabbage, peas, and cornBison; wild edible plants and roots
Clothing & ToolsWaterproof clothing and blankets; Tools made from bone and teethAnimal skin clothing; spoons, masks, canoes, and totem pollsDeerskin clothing and robes of rabbit skin; Bows and arrows, spears, knivesWomen wore strips of bark, sandals, and fur; basketsNot statedClothing not stated; used forests to make tools, homes, fuel, and foodClothing not stated; bows and arrows, blow guns, and trapsBison fur; dogs were used to carry supplies.
Present-DayCanada and GreenlandCanada, California, Washington, and OregonOregon, California, Idaho, and CanadaNevada, California, Arizona, Utah, Idaho, OregonMexico, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and ColoradoStretched from New England to the Gulf of MexicoTexas to West Virginia, down to FloridaMississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, from Canada to Texas

Environmental Determinants of Development

  • 🏜️ Southwest societies developed irrigation because the arid climate made traditional rainfall agriculture impossible, yet river access provided opportunity.
  • 🌾 Great Plains mobility was a direct response to seasonal bison migration patterns and limited rainfall for agriculture.
  • ⚓ Northeast settlements became permanent because the balance of fertile soil, abundant game, and seasonal growing cycles enabled stable, year-round food supplies.

Environmental Exchange Networks

Native societies created extensive trade networks to overcome the limitations of their local environments. Coastal shells traveled to inland tribes, while obsidian and specialized materials moved across thousands of miles. These networks demonstrate how Native Americans actively managed environmental constraints through inter-regional cooperation

Native American tribes across North America adapted cleverly to their environments before Europeans arrived. They created different ways of life based on what resources they had - whether farming corn in the Southwest, hunting bison on the Plains, or fishing along the coasts. Understanding these different lifestyles helps us see what Europeans encountered when they first arrived. Next, we'll look at why Europeans came to America and what happened when these different worlds met.

Key Terms to Review (26)

1491: The year 1491 marks a significant moment in history as it precedes the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas. This time is crucial for understanding the complex and diverse Native American societies that thrived across North America long before European contact. In 1491, various tribes and cultures had developed their own unique customs, economies, and political systems, showcasing a rich tapestry of life that would soon be disrupted by European exploration and colonization.
Apache: The Apache are a group of Native American tribes originally located in the Southwestern United States, particularly in areas that now include Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. Known for their strong warrior culture, nomadic lifestyle, and resistance to European encroachment, the Apache played a significant role in the history of Native American societies before European contact.
Arctic and Subarctic Region: The Arctic and Subarctic Region encompasses the northernmost areas of North America, characterized by extreme cold, tundra landscapes, and unique ecosystems. This region has historically been home to diverse Native American societies that adapted to the harsh climate and utilized the rich natural resources available in these environments for survival and cultural development.
Cherokee: The Cherokee are a Native American tribe originally from the Southeastern United States, primarily in areas that are now North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. They were known for their sophisticated political structures, rich culture, and extensive agricultural practices before European contact, and later faced significant challenges as they interacted with European settlers.
Chinook: The Chinook were a Native American people from the Pacific Northwest, specifically known for their rich culture and complex society centered around the Columbia River. They were skilled fishers, traders, and builders of large cedar plank houses, reflecting their deep connection to the river and forested environment. Their social structure included a chief and a system of clans, showcasing the importance of hierarchy and community in their way of life.
Chumash: The Chumash were a Native American people who inhabited the coastal regions of California, particularly around present-day Santa Barbara and the Channel Islands. They are known for their sophisticated maritime culture, rich craftsmanship, and complex social structures that thrived long before European contact.
Coos: Coos refers to a group of Native American tribes, primarily the Coos and Coquille tribes, located along the southern Oregon coast. Before European contact, these tribes were known for their rich culture, complex social structures, and reliance on the abundant natural resources found in their coastal environment, including fishing and gathering. Their existence and lifestyle exemplified the diverse ways of life that flourished among Native American societies prior to the arrival of Europeans.
Cree: The Cree are one of the largest Indigenous peoples in Canada, primarily inhabiting regions from Alberta to Quebec. They have a rich cultural heritage and diverse dialects, reflecting their long history and adaptation to various environments before European contact. The Cree's social organization, spiritual beliefs, and economic practices were deeply connected to the land, making them an integral part of the North American Indigenous landscape.
Eskimo: The term Eskimo traditionally refers to a group of Indigenous peoples primarily inhabiting the Arctic regions of Alaska, Canada, Greenland, and Siberia. This term encompasses groups such as the Inuit and Yupik, known for their unique adaptations to the harsh Arctic environment and rich cultural practices that include hunting, fishing, and gathering.
First Nation Peoples: First Nation Peoples refers to the various Indigenous groups in Canada and parts of the United States who are recognized as the original inhabitants of these regions. These communities have distinct cultures, languages, and social structures that were established long before European contact, highlighting their rich heritage and complex societies.
Great Basin Region: The Great Basin Region is a large, arid area located in the western United States, encompassing parts of Nevada, Utah, and portions of surrounding states. This region is characterized by its unique geographical features, such as mountain ranges, valleys, and saline lakes, which shaped the lifestyles and cultures of the Native American societies that inhabited it before European contact.
Great Plains: The Great Plains is a vast region of flat land that stretches across the central United States and Canada, characterized by its grasslands and few trees. This region was home to diverse Native American societies before European contact, who adapted to the environment and utilized its natural resources for sustenance, trade, and cultural practices. The Great Plains also played a crucial role in the historical development of agriculture and ranching, significantly impacting land use and environmental management.
Mesa Verde National Park Cliff Palace: Mesa Verde National Park Cliff Palace is a remarkable archaeological site located in Colorado, known for its well-preserved cliff dwellings built by the Ancestral Puebloans during the late 12th century. This site reflects the advanced architectural and agricultural practices of Native American societies before European contact, showcasing their adaptation to the arid environment and their sophisticated social structures.
Navajo: The Navajo, also known as the Diné, are a Native American tribe primarily located in the Southwestern United States, particularly in areas of Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. They are known for their rich cultural heritage, including traditional crafts like weaving and silversmithing, as well as their complex social structures and connection to the land.
Nez Perce: The Nez Perce are a Native American tribe originally from the Pacific Northwest, known for their rich culture and resistance against U.S. expansion during the 19th century. They played a significant role in the interactions between Native Americans and European settlers, showcasing complex social structures and deep connections to their land, which were often threatened by the westward movement of settlers.
Nomadic Hunting and Gathering Tribes: Nomadic hunting and gathering tribes are groups of people who rely on the natural environment for their sustenance, moving from place to place in search of food and resources. These tribes typically live in small, mobile bands, utilizing their knowledge of the land to hunt animals and gather plants, fruits, and nuts. This way of life reflects a deep connection with nature and adaptability to various environments, playing a significant role in shaping early human societies in North America before European contact.
Northeast (Eastern Woodlands) Region: The Northeast, also known as the Eastern Woodlands Region, is an area in North America characterized by dense forests, rivers, and a diverse climate. This region was home to numerous Native American societies before European contact, each adapting to the environment and developing distinct cultures, economies, and social structures based on their geographical surroundings.
Northwest Coast and California Region: The Northwest Coast and California Region refers to the diverse Native American societies that inhabited the coastal areas of present-day Washington, Oregon, California, and parts of British Columbia before European contact. This region is known for its rich natural resources, including fish, game, and plants, which played a vital role in shaping the social, economic, and cultural practices of these Indigenous communities.
Permanent Settlements: Permanent settlements refer to communities that are established in one location and remain for an extended period, characterized by stable housing, agriculture, and social structures. In the context of Native American societies before European contact, these settlements often fostered complex social organizations, trade networks, and agricultural practices that varied significantly across different regions.
Plateau Region: The Plateau Region refers to a large geographic area characterized by elevated flatlands, often found between mountain ranges. In the context of Native American societies before European contact, this region provided diverse environments and resources that influenced the lifestyles, cultures, and economies of the Indigenous peoples who inhabited it.
Pueblo: The term Pueblo refers to a group of Native American peoples, particularly in the Southwestern United States, known for their unique adobe dwellings and agricultural practices. These communities were highly organized, with a focus on agriculture, trade, and the construction of multi-storied houses made from adobe and stone. The Pueblo peoples developed rich cultural traditions, including pottery and religious ceremonies, which played a significant role in their societies before European contact.
Shoshone: The Shoshone are a Native American tribe originally inhabiting regions in the western United States, particularly in areas that include present-day Idaho, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming. Known for their nomadic lifestyle, the Shoshone adapted to various environments, including mountains and deserts, and were skilled hunters, gatherers, and fishers, reflecting the diverse ecosystems they lived in before European contact.
Sioux: The Sioux are a group of Native American tribes that share a common language and cultural heritage, primarily located in the Great Plains region of North America. Known for their nomadic lifestyle centered around buffalo hunting, the Sioux played a significant role in the history of Native American societies before European contact, demonstrating complex social structures and rich spiritual traditions.
Southeast Region: The Southeast Region of the United States is known for its diverse landscapes, rich cultural heritage, and significant historical developments. This area was home to several Native American societies prior to European contact, which had complex social structures, economies, and spiritual beliefs that were deeply intertwined with the natural environment around them.
Southwest Region: The Southwest Region of the United States is characterized by its diverse geography, culture, and history, including deserts, mountains, and Native American cultures. It played a crucial role in shaping the lives of Indigenous peoples long before European contact and became a site of significant interactions between Native Americans and European settlers during colonization.
Tlingit: The Tlingit are an Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America, known for their rich cultural heritage, complex social structures, and skilled craftsmanship. They played a crucial role in the maritime economy, engaging in fishing, hunting, and trade, and had a profound connection to the land and sea long before European contact. Their social organization is matrilineal, with clans and extended families forming the basis of their society.
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1.3 European Exploration in the Americas