AP World History: Modern
One-page, printable cheatsheet
Table of Contents
🌍ap world history: modern review
9.5 Calls for Reform and Responses after 1900
Verified for the 2025 AP World History: Modern exam•Citation:MLA
Introduction
In the 20th and 21st centuries, increasing access to education, mass media, and political participation sparked powerful movements around the world. These movements challenged existing ideas about race, gender, religion, and class. Globalization allowed injustices—once hidden within borders—to be broadcast worldwide, empowering marginalized groups to demand reform and inspiring global solidarity.
Human Rights in the Global Age
The term Global Age refers to the era of unprecedented global interconnectivity through technology, communication, and transportation. This connectivity exposed human rights violations and amplified calls for reform across continents.
China and the Communist Era
After the victory of the Communist Party in 1949, the People’s Republic of China was established under Mao Zedong. His government introduced several radical reforms aimed at consolidating power and transforming society:
- Land Redistribution: Private landowners were executed or imprisoned, and their land was redistributed to peasants. Mao estimated that 2 to 3 million people were killed during these campaigns.
- Re-Education Camps: From 1957 to 2013, China operated forced labor camps for political dissenters and criminals. These camps were notorious for overcrowding, starvation, and harsh conditions.
- Great Leap Forward: This economic plan aimed to rapidly industrialize China, but it caused mass famine, leading to the deaths of an estimated 30 million people.
Tiananmen Square, 1989
On June 4, 1989, pro-democracy demonstrations led by students in Tiananmen Square were met with brutal military suppression. Though the Chinese government censored the event domestically, global media coverage revealed the violence and reinforced international concern about human rights in China.
.jpg&w=1920&q=75)
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
In 1948, the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), a groundbreaking document that outlined 30 fundamental rights applicable to all people, regardless of nationality, race, or religion.
Key principles included:
- The right to life, liberty, and security
- Freedom of thought, religion, expression, and assembly
- Protection from discrimination, torture, and arbitrary arrest
- Access to education, employment, and cultural participation
The UDHR has since influenced numerous international treaties and national constitutions.
Gender Equality and Feminist Movements
Throughout the 20th century, women and gender minorities across the world fought for political inclusion, education, and equal treatment under the law.
Women's Suffrage
Women gained the right to vote (suffrage) in many countries during the 20th century:
- United States: 1920
- Brazil: 1932
- Turkey: 1934
- Japan: 1945
- India: 1947
Suffrage was often the first step in broader feminist movements that challenged patriarchal structures in education, employment, and law.
Civil Rights Movements
United States Civil Rights Movement
Despite the end of slavery, Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation and limited Black Americans’ political and economic freedom. From the 1950s to the 1970s, the Civil Rights Movement sought to dismantle these laws through protests, legal action, and nonviolent resistance.
Key figures included:
- Martin Luther King Jr.
- Rosa Parks
- Malcolm X
- Betty Friedan (also a leader in second-wave feminism)
The movement achieved major legislative victories, including:
- Civil Rights Act of 1964 – banned discrimination based on race, religion, sex, or national origin
- Voting Rights Act of 1965 – protected voting rights for racial minorities
Apartheid in South Africa
From 1948 to the early 1990s, apartheid legally enforced racial segregation in South Africa. Under apartheid:
- Non-white citizens had to live in separate areas
- Access to education, jobs, and political power was restricted
Nelson Mandela, leader of the anti-apartheid movement, was imprisoned for 27 years. International pressure, sanctions, and growing internal resistance eventually ended apartheid. Mandela was elected South Africa’s first Black president in 1994.
Australian Aboriginal Rights
European colonization drastically reduced the Aboriginal population. The Western Australia Aborigines Act restricted their freedoms, enabled the government to remove Aboriginal children from their families, and barred them from employment without permission.
Progress came with the Racial Discrimination Act of 1975, which banned racial discrimination. In 2008, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd formally apologized for the historical injustices committed against Aboriginal Australians.
Environmental Justice Movements
In the late 20th century, activists began linking environmental degradation to economic inequality and systemic injustice. Poorer communities—often marginalized by race, ethnicity, or class—disproportionately suffered from pollution, deforestation, and climate change.
These concerns led to:
- Indigenous-led conservation movements in Latin America and Southeast Asia
- Environmental justice protests in the U.S. against hazardous waste sites near Black and Latino communities
- International agreements, like the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement, calling for global cooperation in addressing climate change
Key Terms to Review (32)
Afrikaner National Party: The Afrikaner National Party was a political party in South Africa that emerged in the early 20th century, advocating for the interests and rights of Afrikaners, the descendants of Dutch settlers. It played a crucial role in the establishment and maintenance of apartheid policies from 1948 onwards, marking a significant response to both internal and external calls for reform during the 20th century.
Apartheid in South Africa: Apartheid was a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination enforced in South Africa from 1948 to the early 1990s. It aimed to maintain white domination while controlling the rights and movements of non-white South Africans. The policies of apartheid significantly impacted economic development and social dynamics in South Africa, leading to national and international calls for reform and resistance against this oppressive regime.
Australian Aborigine Civil Rights Movement: The Australian Aborigine Civil Rights Movement is a struggle by Indigenous Australians to achieve equal rights, recognition, and respect within Australian society. Emerging in the mid-20th century, this movement aimed to address issues such as land rights, social justice, and the acknowledgment of past injustices faced by Aboriginal peoples. It became a significant force advocating for reform and policy change, highlighting the need for reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.
Betty Friedan: Betty Friedan was a prominent American feminist, writer, and activist known for her influential book 'The Feminine Mystique,' published in 1963. This groundbreaking work is often credited with sparking the second wave of feminism in the United States, challenging traditional gender roles and advocating for women's rights in the context of post-World War II society.
Chiang Kai-shek: Chiang Kai-shek was a Chinese political and military leader who served as the head of the Nationalist government in China during the early to mid-20th century. He played a crucial role in the struggle against communism and the fight for national unity following the fall of the Qing dynasty, representing a significant response to calls for reform in China after 1900.
Chinese Civil War: The Chinese Civil War was a major conflict fought between the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) and the Communist Party of China from 1927 until 1949. This war significantly shaped modern China's political landscape and reflected the broader ideological struggle between nationalism and communism, influencing calls for reform and responses to social upheaval in the early 20th century as well as the global spread of communism after WWII.
Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is landmark legislation in the United States that aimed to eliminate discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. This act was a significant achievement of the civil rights movement, addressing various forms of inequality and promoting equal rights in public accommodations, education, and employment. It marked a turning point in American society by legally challenging segregation and discrimination that had persisted since the Jim Crow era.
Civil Rights Movement in the United States: The Civil Rights Movement was a pivotal social and political movement in the United States during the 1950s and 1960s aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans. This movement was marked by a series of campaigns, protests, and legal challenges that sought to secure equal rights and protections under the law, highlighting broader calls for reform and responses to systemic injustices prevalent in American society.
Daisy Bates: Daisy Bates was an influential civil rights activist and journalist known for her role in the desegregation of public schools in the United States, particularly during the Little Rock Nine crisis in 1957. Her advocacy and determination helped to challenge racial segregation and played a significant part in the broader struggle for civil rights, showcasing the calls for reform and the responses that emerged after 1900.
Emancipation: Emancipation refers to the act of freeing individuals from legal, social, or political restrictions, particularly concerning enslaved people. It signifies a transformative process where marginalized groups gain autonomy and rights, often through reform movements. The concept is closely tied to social justice and the struggle for equality in various historical contexts.
F.W. De Klerk: F.W. De Klerk was the last State President of apartheid-era South Africa, serving from 1989 to 1994. He played a pivotal role in the dismantling of apartheid and the transition to a multiracial democracy, which marked a significant response to the growing calls for reform in the country during the late 20th century.
Gender Equality: Gender equality refers to the state in which individuals of all genders have equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities. It encompasses equal access to resources and decision-making, as well as the elimination of discrimination based on gender. This concept became increasingly prominent in reform movements after 1900, as societies recognized the need for women's rights and the importance of gender balance in social, political, and economic spheres.
Global Age: The Global Age refers to a period marked by increased interconnectedness among countries through trade, communication, and cultural exchange, significantly accelerating after 1900. This era saw the rise of globalization, where technological advancements and imperial expansion played crucial roles in shaping political, economic, and social landscapes worldwide. The Global Age fundamentally altered how nations interacted and influenced calls for reform across various societies as they responded to the challenges and opportunities presented by this new global environment.
Great Leap Forward: The Great Leap Forward was an economic and social campaign initiated by the Chinese Communist Party from 1958 to 1962, aiming to transform China from an agrarian society into a socialist society through rapid industrialization and collectivization. This ambitious initiative sought to increase agricultural and industrial production, but ultimately led to widespread famine and economic disaster, highlighting the challenges of implementing communism in practice.
Human Rights: Human rights are the fundamental rights and freedoms that belong to every person, regardless of nationality, sex, ethnicity, or any other status. These rights include the right to life, liberty, education, and freedom from torture, among others. In the early 20th century, movements advocating for human rights emerged in response to abuses caused by imperialism, war, and totalitarian regimes, leading to formal recognition in international agreements. As globalization progressed after 1900, human rights became central in debates about cultural preservation and economic inequality.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) is a key international treaty that commits its parties to work toward granting economic, social, and cultural rights to individuals. This includes rights related to work, health, education, and an adequate standard of living. The ICESCR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1966, emerging from calls for reform to address the inequalities and hardships faced by individuals around the world in the wake of World War II and through the social movements of the 20th century.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is a key international treaty that aims to protect individual civil and political rights, ensuring that signatory states respect and uphold these rights for their citizens. Adopted by the United Nations in 1966 and entered into force in 1976, the ICCPR reflects the growing global calls for reform and human rights protections in response to oppressive regimes and conflicts that characterized the 20th century.
Jim Crow Laws: Jim Crow Laws were a series of state and local statutes enacted in the Southern United States from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchisement of African Americans. These laws institutionalized a system of white supremacy by mandating separate public facilities, schools, transportation, and more for Black people and whites, reflecting broader societal attitudes and systemic racism in the United States during this era.
Kevin Rudd: Kevin Rudd is an Australian politician who served as the 26th Prime Minister of Australia from 2007 to 2010 and again briefly in 2013. His time in office was marked by significant calls for reform, particularly in areas such as climate change, indigenous rights, and economic policy, reflecting a broader global movement toward progressive change after 1900.
Land Redistribution: Land redistribution refers to the process of reallocation of land from landowners to landless or marginalized groups, often initiated by government policies or reform movements. This practice aims to address social inequalities and improve the livelihoods of the poor, particularly in response to economic disparities and agrarian unrest that emerged during the 20th century.
LGBTQ+ communities: LGBTQ+ communities refer to social and political groups comprised of individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and others who may not fit into these categories, including non-binary and gender non-conforming individuals. These communities have emerged to advocate for equal rights, social acceptance, and recognition in response to discrimination and marginalization faced throughout history, particularly intensifying during the 20th century and into the modern era.
Malcolm X: Malcolm X was an African American Muslim minister and human rights activist who was a prominent figure in the civil rights movement during the 1960s. He advocated for Black empowerment, self-defense, and the right of Black Americans to achieve equality by any means necessary, making him a polarizing figure in the struggle for civil rights and social justice.
Mao Zedong: Mao Zedong was a Chinese communist revolutionary and founding father of the People's Republic of China, who played a pivotal role in shaping modern Chinese history. His leadership marked significant shifts in power dynamics within China and influenced global communism, leading to reforms that aimed to transform the Chinese economy and society radically.
Martin Luther King Jr.: Martin Luther King Jr. was a prominent American civil rights leader known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs and the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi. His efforts during the 1950s and 1960s were crucial in challenging racial segregation and discrimination, making him a key figure in calls for social reform and global resistance movements in the 20th century.
Nelson Mandela: Nelson Mandela was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary and political leader who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He is renowned for his role in ending apartheid and establishing multiracial elections, symbolizing the struggle against racial oppression and inspiring global movements for justice and equality.
People’s Republic of China: The People's Republic of China (PRC) is a socialist state established in 1949, governed by the Communist Party of China (CPC). It emerged after a long civil war and marked the victory of communist forces over nationalist forces, fundamentally reshaping China's political landscape and its role in global affairs. The PRC has since become a major player in the spread of communism and has faced significant calls for reform in response to both domestic challenges and international pressures.
Re-education Camps: Re-education camps are facilities used to detain individuals, often for political or ideological reasons, where they are subjected to programs aimed at changing their beliefs and behaviors. These camps have been employed by various governments to suppress dissent and promote conformity, particularly in the context of modern calls for reform and responses to social changes after 1900.
Rosa Parks: Rosa Parks was an African American civil rights activist best known for her pivotal role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955. By refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger, she became a symbol of the fight against racial segregation and injustice, sparking a significant movement that called for reform in American society.
Tiananmen Square: Tiananmen Square is a large public space in Beijing, China, known for its historical significance and political importance, particularly as the site of pro-democracy protests in 1989. The demonstrations were primarily led by students calling for political reform, freedom of speech, and other democratic rights, but were met with a violent crackdown by the Chinese government, leading to widespread condemnation internationally. This event highlighted the struggle for reform within China and marked a pivotal moment in the country's modern history.
United Nations General Assembly: The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations, comprising all member states that meet annually to discuss and coordinate on international issues. It serves as a platform for member countries to express their views and propose resolutions, playing a crucial role in the promotion of international cooperation and reform efforts following major global conflicts and changes in the 20th century.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a milestone document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, outlining fundamental human rights that are to be universally protected. It emphasizes the inherent dignity and equal rights of all individuals, aiming to prevent atrocities like those seen during World War II. The declaration serves as a foundational text for international human rights law and reflects a global consensus on the rights and freedoms that all humans are entitled to.
Women's Suffrage: Women's suffrage refers to the movement advocating for women's right to vote in political elections. This movement emerged as a significant part of broader social reforms in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, influenced by Enlightenment ideas about equality and individual rights. The fight for women's suffrage highlighted the struggle for gender equality and led to profound changes in laws and societal norms regarding women's roles in public life.