AP World History: Modern
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🌍ap world history: modern review
7.5 Unresolved Tensions After World War I
Verified for the 2025 AP World History: Modern exam•Citation:MLA
The end of World War I in 1918 brought an armistice, but not lasting peace. While the war resolved immediate conflicts over empire and power in Europe, it also created new tensions, unresolved grievances, and revolutions in thought. In many ways, the peace treaties of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference planted the seeds for further conflict.
At the heart of these tensions was a clash between imperialism and the growing demand for self-determination. Many colonized peoples had fought on behalf of imperial powers, hoping this would win them greater autonomy. Instead, their expectations were crushed—leading to frustration and resistance movements across Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.
Postwar Ideals vs. Imperial Reality
Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
At the Paris Peace Conference, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson proposed his Fourteen Points, a plan to ensure future peace. Some key ideas included:
- Free trade and freedom of the seas
- Reduction of arms
- Self-determination for colonized peoples
- An international peacekeeping body (League of Nations)
However, European powers rejected many of these proposals, especially those about self-determination and colonial independence. The result?
⭐ The U.S. turned inward. The Senate rejected the League of Nations, and the U.S. adopted an isolationist stance throughout much of the interwar period.
Japanese Imperial Expansion
Japan’s Rise and Military Turn
Japan emerged from the Meiji Restoration (1868) as a rapidly industrializing power. By the early 20th century, Japan had defeated both China and Russia in major wars, proving its strength to the West.
During WWI, Japan sided with the Allies, seizing German holdings in Asia. But postwar racism—like being denied a "racial equality clause" in the Treaty of Versailles—deepened resentment among Japanese leaders.
When the Great Depression hit in the 1930s, military leaders took control, pushing aggressive expansion as a solution. Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, renaming it Manchukuo, and then launched a full invasion of China in 1937.
⭐ The Rape of Nanjing (1937): Japanese troops massacred hundreds of thousands of civilians, an atrocity that shocked the world and showcased the brutality of Japan’s expansion.
Japan framed its empire as a “Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere”, claiming to "liberate" Asians from Western colonialism. In practice, this was thin cover for imperial conquest and exploitation.
Mandates and the Question of Self-Determination
Colonial Territories Reassigned
After the war, the empires of the Central Powers (especially the Ottoman and German Empires) were carved up by the Allies. The League of Nations established mandates—colonial holdings now justified as being temporarily governed by European powers until the people could "govern themselves."
In practice, however, mandates were just colonies under a new name. Many locals felt betrayed by Wilson’s promise of self-determination, especially since they had contributed troops and resources to the war effort.
⭐ Mandates = broken promises. Anti-colonial activists called out the hypocrisy of preaching self-rule while expanding empires.
Resistance and Transnational Movements
Throughout the interwar period, resistance to imperialism grew stronger, often coordinated across national borders.
Pan-Africanism and Pan-Arabism
Two major transnational movements emerged:
- Pan-Africanism: Called for solidarity among all people of African descent, across the diaspora. Emphasized unity, pride, and political independence.
- Pan-Arabism: Promoted unity among Arab peoples across the Middle East and North Africa, seeking liberation from British and French control.
Both movements laid intellectual and cultural foundations for later independence movements after WWII.
Rise of Nationalist Movements
Colonized people didn’t just resist with ideas—they organized.
India’s Nonviolent Resistance
In British India, the Indian National Congress became the center of anti-colonial politics.
Led by Mohandas Gandhi, Indian nationalists used nonviolent protest:
- Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922): Boycotted British goods and institutions.
- Salt March (1930): Protested the British salt tax by walking to the sea and making salt—defying British law.
These protests gained international attention and helped shift public opinion against British imperialism.
West African Political Mobilization
In French West Africa, strikes and protests demanded greater autonomy. Educated elites, influenced by Enlightenment and revolutionary ideals, began to organize:
- Political congresses
- Trade unions
- Nationalist parties
While independence would not be won until after WWII, these interwar movements sowed the seeds of decolonization.
Summary Table: Postwar Tensions and Their Consequences
| Region | Tension / Grievance | Resulting Movement or Action |
|---|---|---|
| Middle East | Mandate system replaces Ottoman rule | Rise of Pan-Arabism, nationalist resistance |
| Africa | Continued colonization, lack of self-rule | Pan-Africanism, political congresses, strikes |
| India | No self-rule despite wartime service | Gandhi’s campaigns: Non-Cooperation, Salt March |
| Japan | Racial exclusion, limited gains after WWI | Militarism and invasion of Manchuria and China |
Conclusion: The Calm Before Another Storm
While WWI ended formal fighting in Europe, its resolution failed to resolve deeper global tensions. Colonized peoples felt betrayed by the hollow promises of self-rule, while rising powers like Japan challenged the status quo with aggression.
This disillusionment would intensify into the 1930s, setting the stage for another global conflict—World War II.
Key Terms to Review (36)
Allied Powers: The Allied Powers were a coalition of countries that opposed the Central Powers during World War I and later included key nations fighting against the Axis Powers during World War II. This alliance initially consisted of major powers like France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, which later expanded to include the United States and other nations. Their collaboration was crucial in both conflicts, significantly shaping the course of history and international relations in the 20th century.
Anti-Imperial Resistance: Anti-Imperial Resistance refers to the movements and actions taken by colonized peoples against imperial powers, aiming to challenge and overthrow colonial rule. After World War I, various regions saw a rise in nationalist sentiments fueled by a desire for self-determination, as empires weakened and promises of independence emerged yet remained unfulfilled. This resistance was often characterized by organized protests, uprisings, and the formation of political movements advocating for independence and rights.
European Imperialism: European Imperialism refers to the policy and practice of European nations extending their power and influence over other countries through colonization, conquest, and economic domination, particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries. This expansion led to significant global changes, resulting in unresolved tensions that arose after major conflicts, resistance movements against colonial powers, and various responses from indigenous populations.
Fourteen Points: The Fourteen Points were a set of principles proposed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1918 aimed at establishing a framework for lasting peace following World War I. These points emphasized self-determination for nations, free trade, disarmament, and the establishment of a League of Nations to prevent future conflicts. The Fourteen Points were significant as they addressed the unresolved tensions that arose after the war and sought to create a more stable international order.
French Rule: French Rule refers to the period of colonial governance by France over various territories, particularly in Africa and Southeast Asia, during the 19th and early 20th centuries. This rule is characterized by the imposition of French culture, language, and administrative systems, which often led to significant social, economic, and political changes in the colonized regions, as well as unresolved tensions that persisted after World War I.
Germany: Germany is a nation-state in Central Europe that became a unified country in 1871, playing a crucial role in various global events and conflicts from the late 19th century onwards. Its industrial growth, nationalistic movements, and political ambitions significantly influenced the course of European history, particularly during major wars and economic developments.
Great Depression: The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic downturn that lasted from 1929 until the late 1930s, marked by massive unemployment, significant declines in consumer spending, and widespread poverty. Its effects rippled across nations, leading to political instability, social unrest, and changes in government policies as countries struggled to recover.
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere: The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere was a concept promoted by Japan during World War II that aimed to create a bloc of Asian nations led by Japan, free from Western influence. This idea was presented as a mutual economic and cultural partnership among Asian countries, but it primarily served Japan's imperial ambitions and justified its military conquests across East and Southeast Asia.
Indian National Congress: The Indian National Congress (INC) is a political party in India that played a crucial role in the struggle for independence from British colonial rule. Formed in 1885, the INC became the principal organization representing Indian interests and aspirations, leading to significant movements against colonial policies and shaping the political landscape of newly independent India.
Interwar Period: The Interwar Period refers to the time between the end of World War I in 1918 and the beginning of World War II in 1939. This era was marked by significant political, economic, and social upheaval, as countries grappled with unresolved tensions from the war, leading to unstable governments, the rise of totalitarian regimes, and eventual global conflict.
Japanese Imperialism: Japanese Imperialism refers to Japan's expansionist policies and actions during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, where the nation sought to increase its territory and influence across Asia and the Pacific. This period saw Japan adopt Western methods of military modernization and industrialization, leading to its emergence as a major power. The aggressive territorial acquisitions led to tensions both regionally and globally, particularly after World War I, as Japan's imperial ambitions continued to clash with other nations' interests.
Keynesian Economics: Keynesian Economics is an economic theory developed by John Maynard Keynes, advocating for increased government spending and intervention during economic downturns to stimulate demand and pull the economy out of recession. This approach emphasizes the role of aggregate demand in influencing economic activity and suggests that government policies can help mitigate the negative effects of economic cycles.
Korea: Korea is a peninsula located in East Asia, divided into two distinct nations: North Korea and South Korea. This division stems from unresolved tensions and geopolitical conflicts following World War II, which continue to shape regional dynamics and international relations today.
League of Nations: The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded after World War I aimed at promoting peace and cooperation among countries. Established in 1920, its main goals were to prevent wars through collective security, disarmament, and resolving international disputes diplomatically. Despite its ambitious objectives, the League struggled to maintain peace and address the unresolved tensions that followed the war, ultimately failing to prevent the rise of conflicts that led to World War II.
Manchukuo: Manchukuo was a puppet state established by Japan in 1932 in Manchuria, which was formerly part of China. It served as a showcase for Japanese imperial ambitions and as a means to exploit the region's resources, all while presenting an image of legitimate governance under the last Qing emperor, Puyi. This creation exemplified the unresolved tensions and conflicts that emerged in East Asia after World War I, particularly regarding imperialism and nationalism.
Mandates: Mandates were a legal status established by the League of Nations after World War I, allowing certain nations to govern former territories of the defeated powers. This system was intended to prepare these regions for self-governance while providing oversight and administration from more established countries. However, the mandate system led to unresolved tensions and conflicts as the aspirations for independence clashed with the interests of the mandate powers.
Manchuria: Manchuria is a historical region located in Northeast Asia, encompassing parts of modern-day China, Russia, and Mongolia. It became significant in the early 20th century as tensions escalated over imperial ambitions, particularly between Japan and China, leading to conflicts that had lasting repercussions after World War I and played a crucial role in the lead-up to World War II.
Meiji Restoration: The Meiji Restoration was a pivotal event in Japan during the late 19th century that marked the end of feudal rule and the beginning of modernization and industrialization under Emperor Meiji. This transformation led to significant changes in Japan's political, economic, and social structures, establishing it as a major world power.
Mohandas Gandhi: Mohandas Gandhi, also known as Mahatma Gandhi, was a key figure in India's struggle for independence from British rule. He is best known for his philosophy of nonviolent resistance, which influenced global movements for civil rights and freedom. Gandhi's approach to political activism not only shaped India's path to independence but also contributed to broader global resistance against colonialism and oppression.
Nationalist Organizations: Nationalist organizations are groups that promote the interests, culture, and identity of a specific nation or ethnic group, often seeking greater autonomy or independence from larger political entities. After World War I, many of these organizations emerged as nations grappled with the consequences of the war, leading to unresolved tensions and conflicts over borders, governance, and national identity.
New Deal: The New Deal was a series of programs and policies implemented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States during the 1930s aimed at providing relief, recovery, and reform in response to the Great Depression. It sought to address economic instability, promote social welfare, and create jobs, ultimately reshaping the role of government in American life and contributing to unresolved tensions stemming from the effects of World War I.
Non-Cooperation Movement: The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant campaign initiated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920 as a form of protest against British colonial rule in India. It aimed to resist British authority through nonviolent means, encouraging Indians to withdraw from British institutions, boycott British goods, and promote self-reliance. This movement emerged in the aftermath of World War I, reflecting unresolved tensions within India regarding colonial exploitation and the demand for greater autonomy.
Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire was a vast and influential Islamic state that existed from the late 13th century until the early 20th century, encompassing parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It played a crucial role in shaping political, cultural, and economic landscapes across these regions, particularly as it navigated challenges related to modernization, nationalism, and imperialism.
Pan-Arabism: Pan-Arabism is a political and cultural ideology that advocates for the unity of Arab countries and peoples, emphasizing shared language, culture, and historical experiences. This movement emerged in the early 20th century as a response to colonialism and foreign intervention, seeking to establish solidarity among Arab nations and promote independence and cooperation.
Pan-Africanism: Pan-Africanism is a global movement that seeks to unify and empower people of African descent, promoting solidarity and cultural connection among African nations and the African diaspora. This ideology emerged as a response to colonialism, racism, and social injustices, aiming to foster a collective identity and advocate for political and economic independence in Africa.
Paris Peace Conference: The Paris Peace Conference was a series of meetings held in 1919-1920 where the Allied powers negotiated the peace terms following World War I. This conference aimed to establish a new world order, redrawing national boundaries and creating new nations, while also addressing issues like reparations and disarmament. The outcomes of the conference laid the groundwork for unresolved tensions that emerged post-war and contributed to the causes of the next global conflict.
President Woodrow Wilson: Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, serving from 1913 to 1921, and is best known for leading the country during World War I and advocating for a new world order based on democracy and self-determination. His presidency was marked by significant events, including the creation of the League of Nations and his Fourteen Points, which aimed to address unresolved tensions following the war.
Rape of Nanjing: The Rape of Nanjing refers to the mass murder and mass sexual assault of Chinese civilians and disarmed soldiers by Japanese troops during the Second Sino-Japanese War, specifically between December 1937 and January 1938 in the city of Nanjing. This event is a horrific example of wartime atrocities and reflects the unresolved tensions following World War I, as well as the broader pattern of mass atrocities that occurred in the 20th century.
Right to Self-Determination: The Right to Self-Determination is the principle that a group of people has the right to determine their political status and pursue their economic, social, and cultural development. This concept gained prominence in the aftermath of World War I, as newly formed nation-states and colonies sought autonomy and independence from colonial or imperial rule, leading to significant geopolitical shifts.
Russo-Japanese Wars: The Russo-Japanese Wars were a series of conflicts between the Russian Empire and Japan that primarily took place from 1904 to 1905, marked by Japan's surprising victory over Russia. This conflict was significant as it demonstrated Japan's emergence as a major world power and marked the first time an Asian nation defeated a European power in modern history, setting the stage for unresolved tensions after World War I.
Salt Satyagraha: Salt Satyagraha was a nonviolent resistance movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930, aiming to protest against British colonial laws that imposed a tax on salt and restricted its production. This campaign was significant as it mobilized large segments of the Indian population against colonial rule, highlighting the theme of civil disobedience and self-sufficiency. It connected to broader unresolved tensions after World War I, as many nations, including India, were struggling for independence and self-determination in the face of imperialist control.
Sino-Japanese Wars: The Sino-Japanese Wars refer to two major conflicts between China and Japan, the first occurring from 1894 to 1895 and the second from 1937 to 1945. These wars marked significant turning points in East Asian history, highlighting Japan's rise as a modern imperial power and exposing the weaknesses of Qing China, leading to unresolved tensions that contributed to further conflicts in the region after World War I.
Transnational Movements: Transnational movements refer to organized efforts that span multiple nations, often advocating for social, political, or economic change beyond national boundaries. These movements arise in response to global issues and seek to mobilize support and create networks across countries to address shared challenges, such as human rights, environmental protection, or economic justice.
US Isolationist Policy: The US Isolationist Policy refers to the foreign policy approach adopted by the United States during the interwar period, characterized by a reluctance to engage in international conflicts and a focus on domestic issues. This policy was largely influenced by the desire to avoid the devastation of World War I and was reflected in various legislative measures aimed at limiting American involvement in foreign wars.
West Africa: West Africa is a region in the western part of the African continent, known for its diverse cultures, languages, and historical significance. This area has been central to various historical developments, including trade networks, colonial encounters, and social dynamics, influencing both local and global contexts throughout history.
World War I: World War I was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918, primarily involving the Allies and the Central Powers. It marked a significant shift in global power dynamics, leading to massive military engagements and profound social, political, and economic changes around the world.