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AP Human Geography
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Table of Contents
Unit 2 Overview: Population and Migration Patterns and Processes
2.1 Population & Migration
2.2 Consequences of Population Distribution
2.3 Population Composition
2.4 Population Dynamics
2.5 The Demographic Transition Model
2.6 Malthusian Theory and Geography
2.7 Population Policies
2.8 Women and Demographic Change
2.9 Aging Populations
2.10 Push and Pull Factors in Migration
2.11 Forced vs. Voluntary Migration
2.12 Effects of Migration

๐Ÿšœap human geography review

2.2 Consequences of Population Distribution

Verified for the 2025 AP Human Geography examโ€ขCitation:

Depending on where people live (urban or rural), how old people are (dependency ratio, younger population, graying population) and what stage of the Demographic Transition Model (DTM) a country is in, population distribution is affected in many ways.

๐Ÿ› Political

60% of the worldโ€™s population lives in Asia. Most of those countries are predominantly rural, but many are becoming more urbanized. 

Do these countries import or grow more food to feed a growing population? Is farming becoming more mechanized? As more people are moving into cities, are they improving infrastructure to handle booming cities? 

If you have a younger population, are policies (education, job growth) being implemented to help in the future? If you have a graying population, like Japan, are investments being made in healthcare, retirement homes, and social security? How does this put a burden on people of working age (16-64)?

  • Representation: If there is a democratic system of government in place, then the population distribution can influence how many representatives an area gets to have in their government, giving them more influence over policy decisions.

  • Resource allocation: Funding for infrastructure and public services is also determined by population, meaning a higher population will lead to larger funding.

  • Political identity: The distribution of cultural populations can influence the development of political identities and movements, which can lead to conflicts regarding representation in government or resources.

๐Ÿ’ฐ Economic

The dependency ratio is the ratio of nonworking members (those under the working age and retired) to the number of working adults. The size of the dependency ratio of a country affects its economy. If a country has a high percentage of people under working age, it should invest in things like childcare, schooling, education, and job growth. 

If it is becoming more urbanized it should invest in jobs in services and industry. If it has a graying population, which is a large percentage of people over 64, it should invest in medical technology and personnel, healthcare, adult housing, and social security.

  • Employment: The availability of employment opportunities can largely be affected. For example, a higher population would lead to a larger labor force and a more diverse job market.

  • Economic Development: The overall economic development is affected by population distribution. Economic growth can be led by a higher population that attracts businesses and investment.

  • Infrastructure: The development and maintenance of infrastructure (roads, bridges, and utilities) are also influenced by population distribution.

๐Ÿ‘จโ€๐Ÿ‘ฉโ€๐Ÿ‘งโ€๐Ÿ‘ง Social

Countries that are pro-natalist are encouraging people to have more children. Japan has invested millions of dollars into this as it is in stage 5 of the DTM. Its population is declining. In places like Eastern Europe and Singapore, countries are trying to produce population growth. 

While countries in Stage 2 of the DTM (Sub-Saharan Africa) the population is rising quickly. In some of these countries, the average TFR is over 5. These countries should work to improve womenโ€™s health and education, which has been able to slow natural increase rates down significantly.

  • Community Development: Social networks are affected, areas with a higher population density may have more diverse communities and a stronger sense of community

  • Culture and diversity: Areas with a high concentration of a particular ethnic or cultural group may have a distinct culture, while areas with a more diverse population may have a more varied cultural makeup.

  • Quality of life: Individual and Community quality of life can be influenced, for example, areas with a higher population density may have more amenities and opportunities, but may also experience overcrowding and other negative impacts on quality of life.

  • Social mobility: The ability to move up or down the social ladder is affected. Areas with a higher population and more diverse job market may offer more opportunities for social mobility

๐ŸŒณ Environment

Overpopulation can severely affect areas environmentally and deplete natural resources. This is the idea of carrying capacity, which is the greatest amount of people the environment of an area can support sustainably. 

The more people in an area the more pollution and waste are produced. The 20 most polluted cities in the world are all in Asia. 

Also, the more people there are, the more resources are being used. The Aral Sea in Central Asia, which has been used for years for irrigation, is now a fraction of the size it used to be.

  • Pollution: Areas with a high concentration of people and industry may experience higher levels of air and water pollution.

  • Habitat destruction: The destruction or alteration of natural habitats, such as forests and wetlands can be affected. Areas with a high population may have more development and land use, leading to habitat destruction.

  • Biodiversity: The biodiversity of plants and animals is affected, for example, areas with a high population density may have fewer natural habitats and less biodiversity.

  • Climate change: Human activities such as transportation and energy consumption contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, meaning areas with a higher population may have a greater impact on climate change.

๐ŸŽฅ Watch: AP HUG - Population Growth and Decline

Key Terms to Review (25)

Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms on Earth, including the different species, genetic variations within those species, and the ecosystems they form. This concept is crucial because it influences ecosystem productivity, resilience, and overall health, while being affected by human activities and population distributions.
Carrying Capacity: Carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of individuals or species that an environment can sustainably support without degrading its natural resources. This concept is crucial in understanding how population distribution, agricultural practices, and land use impact the availability of resources and the overall health of ecosystems.
Climate Change: Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the Earth's climate, particularly due to human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes. These changes lead to increased global temperatures, rising sea levels, and more extreme weather patterns, which have far-reaching impacts on populations, agriculture, and political systems.
Community Development: Community development refers to a process aimed at improving the quality of life for individuals and communities through collective action and empowerment. This involves engaging residents in identifying their needs and resources, fostering social cohesion, and promoting economic growth and sustainability. By addressing the social, economic, and environmental challenges faced by communities, it enhances overall well-being and resilience.
Demographic Transition Model (DTM): The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is a theoretical framework that describes the stages a country goes through as it transitions from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates, leading to population growth. This model helps explain population changes over time and is closely related to migration patterns, the composition of populations, and the consequences of how populations are distributed across regions.
Dependency Ratio: The dependency ratio is a measure used to show the ratio of non-working-age individuals (typically those under 15 and over 65) to the working-age population (ages 15 to 64). This ratio helps to understand the economic burden on the productive part of society and highlights how population distribution, age structure, and economic policies interact within a region.
Economic Development: Economic development refers to the process of improving the economic well-being and quality of life for a community or country through various means, including increasing income, reducing poverty, and promoting employment opportunities. This process is influenced by factors such as population distribution, urbanization, and infrastructure investment.
Graying Population: A graying population refers to the increasing percentage of elderly individuals in a population, typically due to declining birth rates and longer life expectancy. This demographic shift can lead to significant social, economic, and political consequences, impacting everything from workforce availability to healthcare systems.
Habitat Destruction: Habitat destruction refers to the process through which natural environments are altered or eliminated, primarily due to human activities like urban development, deforestation, and agricultural expansion. This phenomenon has significant implications for species distribution and survival, as it directly impacts the availability of resources necessary for different organisms to thrive, leading to biodiversity loss and ecosystem imbalances.
Infrastructure: Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems that support the functioning of a society, including transportation, communication, water supply, and energy systems. It is essential for economic development, urban growth, and social well-being, connecting various elements like population distribution, urban development, and agricultural practices.
Natural Increase Rates: Natural Increase Rate (NIR) is the difference between the number of live births and the number of deaths in a population over a specific period, typically expressed as a percentage of the total population. This metric is crucial for understanding how population distribution affects societal dynamics, resource allocation, and overall demographic trends. A higher NIR indicates rapid population growth, which can lead to challenges such as urban overcrowding, strain on resources, and social issues, while a negative NIR suggests population decline, impacting economic stability and workforce availability.
Overpopulation: Overpopulation occurs when the number of people exceeds the capacity of the environment to support them, leading to negative consequences such as resource depletion, environmental degradation, and a decline in quality of life. It ties into various aspects of population distribution, migration dynamics, and sustainability, illustrating the complex relationships between people and their environments.
Political Identity: Political identity refers to the way individuals and groups perceive themselves in relation to political systems, ideologies, and communities. This identity shapes how people engage with political processes, their voting behaviors, and their alignment with political parties or movements. In the context of population distribution, political identity can greatly influence and be influenced by demographic factors, leading to varied political landscapes across different regions.
Pollution: Pollution refers to the introduction of harmful substances or products into the environment, which can degrade air, water, and land quality. It is often a byproduct of human activities, such as industrial processes, transportation, and agriculture, and poses significant challenges to health, ecosystems, and urban sustainability. As population density increases, pollution often becomes more concentrated, exacerbating its negative effects on communities and contributing to environmental degradation.
Population Growth: Population growth refers to the increase in the number of individuals in a population, often measured as a percentage over time. This phenomenon is influenced by factors such as birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration, impacting economic development, resource consumption, and social structures across regions.
Pro-natalist: Pro-natalist refers to policies and attitudes that encourage childbearing and higher birth rates within a population. These initiatives often aim to counteract declining birth rates, promote family growth, and ensure future workforce sustainability, addressing demographic challenges associated with aging populations and population distribution imbalances.
Resource Allocation: Resource allocation is the process of distributing available resources among various uses, groups, or individuals to achieve optimal efficiency and effectiveness. This concept is crucial for understanding how resources like land, labor, and capital are assigned in a society, impacting economic growth, sustainability, and social equity.
Rural: Rural refers to areas that are located outside cities and towns, characterized by open spaces, lower population density, and often a greater connection to nature and agriculture. These areas often have unique social structures and economic activities compared to urban regions, influencing patterns of land use, resource distribution, and environmental interactions.
Social Mobility: Social mobility refers to the ability of individuals or families to move up or down the social hierarchy, which can be influenced by factors such as education, income, and employment opportunities. This concept highlights the fluidity of social class and economic status, demonstrating how population distribution can create varying access to resources and opportunities that either facilitate or hinder upward or downward movement in society.
Stage 5 DTM: Stage 5 of the Demographic Transition Model (DTM) describes a phase where countries experience very low birth rates and aging populations, leading to a natural decrease in population size. This stage highlights the consequences of population distribution as societies face challenges related to labor shortages, increased healthcare demands for the elderly, and potential economic stagnation due to a shrinking workforce.
Stage 2 DTM: Stage 2 of the Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is characterized by a significant decrease in mortality rates while birth rates remain high, leading to rapid population growth. This stage often coincides with improvements in healthcare, sanitation, and nutrition, which contribute to lower death rates, particularly among infants and children. The result is an age structure that shifts towards a younger population, significantly influencing the distribution and density of people in various regions.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is a demographic measure that estimates the average number of children a woman would have during her lifetime based on current age-specific fertility rates. TFR is crucial for understanding population growth, as it directly influences population distribution and dynamics, and plays a significant role in the socio-economic conditions, particularly the involvement of women in agriculture and their overall status in society.
Urban: Urban refers to areas characterized by high population density and vast human-made structures, such as cities and towns. This term embodies the essence of social, economic, and cultural interactions that occur in densely populated spaces, impacting various aspects of life including transportation, housing, and public services.
Womenโ€™s Health and Education: Womenโ€™s health and education refer to the access, quality, and outcomes of healthcare services and educational opportunities available to women. This term highlights the significant disparities that exist in both areas due to social, economic, and cultural factors, influencing women's overall well-being and empowerment. Understanding womenโ€™s health and education is essential in addressing gender inequalities that affect population distribution, as these disparities impact population growth, economic development, and societal stability.
Younger Population: A younger population refers to a demographic characteristic where a significant proportion of individuals in a given area are within the younger age brackets, typically under 15 years old. This youthful demographic often influences various aspects of society, such as economic growth, education demands, and healthcare services, as communities with a younger population must accommodate their needs while navigating the challenges that arise from rapid population changes.