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AP US Government
Unit 2 Overview: Interactions Among Branches of Government
2.1 Congress: The Senate and the House of Representatives
2.2 Structures, Powers, and Functions of Congress
2.3 Congressional Behavior
2.4 Roles and Power of the President
2.5 Checks on the Presidency
2.6 Expansion of Presidential Power
2.7 Presidential Communication
2.8 The Judicial Branch
2.9 Legitimacy of the Judicial Branch
2.10 The Court in Action
2.11 Checks on the Judicial Branch
2.12 The Bureaucracy
2.13 Discretionary and Rule-Making Authority
2.14 Holding the Bureaucracy Accountable
2.15 Policy and the Branches of Government

👩🏾‍⚖️ap us government review

2.3 Congressional Behavior

Verified for the 2025 AP US Government exam•Last Updated on March 3, 2025

Representatives represent their constituents! 

Here are some examples of what they do:

  • vote on legislation ✅
  • help their constituents to deal with the government
  • receive complaints about federal services and act on them
  • sponsor voters who seek scholarships or government contracts
  • receive the constituents’ suggestions on how to improve the government

Models of Representation

When a representative acts on the wills and wishes of their constituency it is considered the delegate model. For example, a representative from a rural district will listen to their constituents' problems with the lack of financial resources for a hospital. That representative would go back to Washington to introduce legislation on this issue or support legislation on this topic when acting as a delegate. 

Representatives will listen to their constituents, but will use their best judgment when deciding to vote. This is called the trustee model. An example of this is a representative voting against tax cuts because they feel they won’t do good for the nation, but a sizable portion of their constituents support the tax cuts. 

The politico model involves both the trustee model and delegate model. Legislators follow their own judgment until the public becomes vocal about a particular matter, then they follow the wills of their constituents. 😎

Divided Governments

Partisanship: Gridlocks and Elections

Ideological divisions refer to the differences in political beliefs and values that exist within Congress. These differences can sometimes result in a situation known as gridlock, where the government is unable to move forward with important legislation due to the inability of lawmakers to agree on key issues. 

Gridlocks can occur when one political party or group of lawmakers has a vastly different ideology than the other and refuses to compromise on certain issues. This can lead to a stalemate, where no progress can be made until the two sides reach an agreement. 

To overcome this gridlock and move forward with important legislation, negotiation and compromise may be necessary. This involves finding a common ground between opposing ideologies, and making compromises to reach a mutually agreeable solution. This process can be difficult and time-consuming, but it is often necessary in order to move the government forward and achieve important goals.

Source: MinnPost

Elections can sometimes result in a divided government, where one political party holds the presidency and the other party holds a majority in one or both chambers of Congress. This division can lead to significant challenges in governance, as the president and Congress may have very different ideologies and priorities. When this occurs, partisan votes against presidential initiatives are likely to occur, as members of Congress from the opposing party may be motivated to block or slow down the president's agenda. 

Additionally, a divided government can result in a situation where a "lame-duck" president of one party is unable to get their appointments confirmed by a Congress controlled by the opposing party. This can lead to further gridlock and slow down the government's ability to function effectively. The division of power between the presidency and Congress can make it difficult to pass legislation and make appointments, which can impact the government's ability to serve the needs of the people and carry out its responsibilities. 🔒

Gerrymandering: Baker v. Carr and Shaw v. Reno

Gerrymandering, redistricting, and unequal representation of constituencies are issues in the American political system that have led to unequal representation and political power imbalance. These practices have been partially addressed by two landmark Supreme Court decisions: Baker v. Carr (1962) and Shaw v. Reno (1993).

Baker v. Carr was a case in which the Supreme Court opened the door to equal protection challenges to redistricting. The decision established that the "one person, one vote" doctrine was a constitutional principle, which meant that districts had to be roughly equal in population. This was a major step forward in ensuring that each person's vote carried roughly equal weight, regardless of where they lived.

Shaw v. Reno was a case in which the Supreme Court held that race could not be the predominant factor in redistricting. The decision established that racial gerrymandering was unconstitutional and could only be used in limited circumstances, such as to meet the requirements of the Voting Rights Act. This decision was important in preventing the manipulation of district boundaries for the purpose of suppressing the political power of certain racial or ethnic groups.

Source: NPR

Together, these two decisions have helped to address some of the inequalities that were inherent in the redistricting process and have helped to ensure that each person's vote carries equal weight and that their political representation is not unfairly diluted.

🎥 Watch: AP GOPO - Congress' Committee System

Key Terms to Review (16)

Baker v. Carr: Baker v. Carr is a landmark Supreme Court case from 1962 that established the principle of 'one person, one vote' in legislative redistricting. The ruling allowed federal courts to intervene in and decide cases of legislative apportionment, addressing issues of unequal representation caused by population shifts and legislative districting practices.
Congress' Committee System: The Congress' Committee System refers to the organization of congressional work through various committees that handle specific areas of legislation and oversight. This system allows Congress to manage its workload more efficiently by dividing responsibilities among specialized groups, enabling members to focus on particular issues and contribute their expertise. Committees play a crucial role in the legislative process, conducting hearings, reviewing proposed legislation, and making recommendations for further action.
Delegate Model: The Delegate Model is a theory of representation in which elected officials act on behalf of their constituents, making decisions that reflect the preferences and interests of the people they represent. This model emphasizes accountability and responsiveness, requiring lawmakers to prioritize the wishes of their voters when crafting legislation or taking positions on issues.
Divided Government: Divided government occurs when one party controls the executive branch while another party controls one or both chambers of the legislative branch. This situation can lead to challenges in passing legislation, as the differing priorities and agendas of the parties may result in gridlock. Divided government is often a reflection of the broader political landscape and public sentiment, showcasing how voters can shift power between parties in response to various issues and events.
Gerrymandering: Gerrymandering is the process of manipulating the boundaries of electoral districts to favor one political party over another. This practice can significantly impact electoral outcomes, influencing representation and shaping party power dynamics in Congress and beyond.
Gridlock: Gridlock refers to a situation in which the legislative process is stalled due to the inability of lawmakers to reach an agreement on policy decisions. This often occurs when different political parties control different branches of government, resulting in a standstill that prevents the passage of new laws or reforms. It can reflect deep partisan divides and lead to frustration among constituents who expect action from their elected representatives.
Ideological Divisions: Ideological divisions refer to the differences in beliefs and values that shape political opinions and policy preferences among individuals and groups. These divisions can manifest within political parties, impacting their platforms and strategies, as well as in Congress, where members may align their voting patterns with their ideological commitments, often leading to polarization and gridlock.
Lame-Duck President: A Lame-Duck President refers to an elected official in the final period of their term, especially after a successor has been elected but before the successor takes office. This status often leads to decreased political power and effectiveness, as the outgoing president may face challenges in passing legislation or influencing the actions of Congress due to their imminent departure from office.
Negotiation and Compromise: Negotiation and compromise refer to the processes through which different parties come together to discuss and resolve differences, often resulting in mutual agreements that involve concessions from each side. In the context of governance, particularly within the legislative branch, these practices are crucial for passing laws and facilitating collaboration among diverse groups with varying interests and priorities. This dynamic is essential for achieving legislative goals while maintaining relationships among legislators and their constituents.
Partisan Votes: Partisan votes refer to the voting behavior of legislators that aligns with their political party's positions, often leading to a division along party lines in legislative decision-making. This phenomenon is a significant aspect of congressional behavior, as it can influence the outcomes of votes on bills and resolutions, shaping the legislative agenda and policy outcomes. The prevalence of partisan votes often reflects broader political polarization and the strength of party loyalty among elected officials.
Politico Model: The Politico Model is a theory of legislative behavior that combines aspects of both the delegate and trustee models, suggesting that lawmakers act as delegates on highly public issues while taking on the role of trustees on more complex or less visible matters. This approach reflects the balance lawmakers must strike between responding to the wishes of their constituents and exercising their own judgment when making decisions.
Redistricting: Redistricting is the process of redrawing the boundaries of electoral districts to reflect changes in population and ensure fair representation. This process typically occurs every ten years after the national census, influencing congressional representation and state legislative seats. Redistricting can significantly impact political power dynamics by determining which party has a better chance of winning elections in newly drawn districts.
Shaw v. Reno: Shaw v. Reno is a landmark Supreme Court case from 1993 that addressed the constitutionality of racially gerrymandered districts. The case arose when North Carolina created a congressional district designed to ensure the election of an African American representative, which was challenged as a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This ruling connects to important discussions on how electoral districting can influence representation and the balance between majority and minority rights in the political process.
Trustee Model: The Trustee Model is a political theory that suggests elected officials should act in the best interests of their constituents, using their own judgment to make decisions rather than strictly adhering to public opinion. This model emphasizes the responsibility of representatives to prioritize the common good and ethical considerations over immediate voter preferences.
Unequal Representation: Unequal representation refers to the disparity in the political power and influence that different groups or regions possess within a legislative body, such as Congress. This can result in some populations having a disproportionately lower voice in the decision-making process, often reflecting social, economic, or geographic inequalities. Factors like gerrymandering, apportionment, and the differing number of constituents in various districts contribute to this imbalance, raising concerns about fairness and equity in the political system.
Voting Rights Act: The Voting Rights Act is a landmark piece of federal legislation enacted in 1965 aimed at overcoming legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote. This Act sought to ensure that the voting process is fair and equitable, particularly for minority groups, and has had a lasting impact on voting behavior, congressional behavior, and the balance of rights between minorities and majorities.
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2.4 Roles and Power of the President