🇪🇺ap european history review
9.8 20th-Century Feminism
Verified for the 2025 AP European History exam•Citation:MLA
Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, women's roles in Europe experienced profound transformations. Though earlier centuries had confined women primarily to the domestic sphere, modern feminism—especially from the mid-20th century onward—challenged those constraints. The result was expanded access to education, legal rights, professional careers, and political office, though women continued to face social and economic inequalities.
From Domesticity to Feminism: A Long-Term Shift
Women’s Roles Since the Renaissance
Since the Renaissance, European society placed women within narrowly defined roles, often dictated by religious and cultural noms.
| Period | Common Roles and Expectations | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Renaissance (1450s) | Noblewomen educated; most confined to domestic life | Patriarchal family structures |
| Enlightenment | Some women involved in salons and intellectual life | Increased emphasis on reason, but limited rights |
| 19th century | Cult of Domesticity—idealized women as homemakers | Legal subordination; excluded from suffrage |
| Industrial Era | Working-class women joined factories | Long hours, low pay; no labor protections |
| Early 20th century | Women took on more roles in WWI and WWII | Beginning of suffrage movements |
⭐ Cult of Domesticity: A 19th-century ideology that promoted women’s role as moral guardians and homemakers. It reinforced gendered spheres of influence, keeping women in the private, domestic realm while men participated in public life.
The Rise of Second-Wave Feminism
By the mid-20th century, women began demanding more than voting rights—they sought full social, political, and economic equality. This movement is known as second-wave feminism (1960s–1980s), and it focused on:
- Equal pay and workplace rights
- Access to education and professional careers
- Reproductive rights (e.g., legal contraception and abortion)
- Sexual liberation and bodily autonomy
One of the movement’s intellectual foundations was Simone de Beauvoir, whose book The Second Sex (1949) argued that women had historically been treated as the “other,” subordinate to men. Her work inspired feminist theory and action across Europe.
⭐ Second-Wave Feminism: A movement during the 1960s–80s that focused on broader issues than voting, including gender roles, workplace inequality, reproductive rights, and sexual freedom.
Feminism in the East and West
While Western Europe saw grassroots feminist organizing, Eastern European women faced a very different context. Communist regimes claimed to guarantee gender equality, but they tightly controlled media, limited dissent, and often suppressed independent feminist voices.
| Region | Feminist Expression | Key Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Western Europe | Activist-led (e.g., France, UK, Germany) | Campaigns for legal abortion, equal pay, etc. |
| Eastern Europe | State-directed (e.g., USSR, Poland) | Women expected to work & raise children; dissent suppressed |
Marriage, Reproduction, and Autonomy
Feminists and shifting cultural norms also redefined family structures and reproductive rights. Women gained greater control over their personal lives through new laws and technologies:
- Access to birth control pills
- Legal abortion (to varying degrees across countries)
- In-vitro fertilization (IVF)
- More liberal attitudes toward divorce, single motherhood, and nontraditional partnerships
⭐ In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF): A medical procedure that enables women to conceive outside of traditional sexual reproduction, increasing reproductive options.
Religious Influence and Opposition
- In France and the UK, contraception became widely available and culturally accepted by the 1970s.
- In Catholic-majority nations such as Italy, Spain, and Portugal, the Church opposed birth control, delaying its legalization and accessibility.
- In Communist Eastern Europe, abortion was technically legal and promoted, but access varied by country and was influenced by economic and ideological considerations.
Women in Politics and Power
As legal and educational barriers fell, women began entering positions of political power across Europe—something virtually unthinkable before WWII.
| Name | Country | Role | Date |
|---|---|---|---|
| Margaret Thatcher | United Kingdom | First female Prime Minister | 1979–1990 |
| Edith Cresson | France | First and only female Prime Minister | 1991 |
| Mary Robinson | Ireland | First female President | 1990–1997 |
| Angela Merkel | Germany | First female Chancellor | 2005–2021 |
Though underrepresentation remains an issue in many legislatures, the percentage of women in national parliaments has grown significantly since the late 20th century.
Conclusion: Continuity and Change
While many barriers to women’s full participation in society have been dismantled, gender inequality has not disappeared. Yet, compared to earlier centuries—when women were legally subordinated and excluded from political life—the 20th and 21st centuries marked a revolutionary expansion of rights, autonomy, and opportunity for European women.
Key Terms to Review (34)
Birth control pill: The birth control pill is a form of hormonal contraceptive that women take to prevent pregnancy, typically by regulating ovulation and altering the uterine lining. This pill has become a significant aspect of reproductive health and has played a crucial role in advancing women's rights and freedoms, especially during the feminist movements of the 20th century.
Catholic Church: The Catholic Church is the oldest and largest Christian denomination, claiming a direct historical connection to the apostles and the teachings of Jesus Christ. It played a central role in shaping European society, politics, and culture, particularly during the Middle Ages and into the modern era.
Communist governments in Eastern Europe: Communist governments in Eastern Europe refer to the political regimes that emerged in various countries in the region after World War II, characterized by one-party rule, state control of the economy, and adherence to Marxist-Leninist ideology. These governments were often installed or supported by the Soviet Union, leading to a centralized authority that suppressed political dissent and limited individual freedoms. The experience of these regimes varied across nations, but they commonly faced challenges related to economic inefficiency and popular discontent.
Czechoslovakia: Czechoslovakia was a nation in Central Europe that existed from 1918 until its peaceful split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993. It played a significant role in the historical events surrounding World War II, the rebuilding of Europe, and the ideological struggle between communism and capitalism during the Cold War.
Eastern Europe: Eastern Europe is a geographical and cultural region that includes countries such as Poland, Hungary, Romania, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, the Baltic states, and parts of the Balkans. It has been historically significant for its diverse political landscapes, ethnic groups, and economic transitions, particularly during and after the Cold War.
Edith Cresson: Edith Cresson is a French politician who served as the Prime Minister of France from 1991 to 1992, becoming the first woman to hold this position in the country's history. Her tenure marked a significant moment in 20th-century feminism, as she symbolized women's increasing presence in high political office and challenged traditional gender roles within governance.
Educational Opportunities: Educational opportunities refer to the access and availability of quality education for all individuals, regardless of their gender, socioeconomic status, or background. This concept is particularly significant in the context of 20th-century feminism, as it highlights the struggles and achievements of women advocating for equal access to education, which was a foundational element in their fight for rights and equality.
Enfranchisement: Enfranchisement refers to the granting of rights or privileges, particularly the right to vote, to individuals or groups who were previously excluded. This concept is crucial in understanding the progress of democracy and social justice movements, especially in the context of 20th-century feminism, as it highlights the struggle for women's rights and representation in political processes.
Equal pay: Equal pay refers to the principle that individuals should receive the same remuneration for performing the same work or work of equal value, regardless of gender or other factors. This concept is essential in addressing wage disparities that have historically marginalized women and minority groups, linking it to broader social justice movements and economic equality.
Feminism: Feminism is a social and political movement advocating for the rights of women and equality between the sexes. It seeks to address issues such as gender discrimination, reproductive rights, and workplace equality, aiming to transform societal norms and institutions that perpetuate gender inequality.
France: France is a country in Western Europe that has played a pivotal role in European history, culture, and politics from the medieval period through modern times. Its influence can be seen across various aspects, including the Renaissance, the rise of absolutism, revolutionary movements, and the establishment of modern nation-states.
In-vitro fertilization (IVF): In-vitro fertilization (IVF) is a medical procedure that involves combining an egg and sperm outside the body to create an embryo, which is then implanted into a woman's uterus. This revolutionary technique has changed the landscape of reproductive options and has been a significant aspect of discussions around women's rights and autonomy in the context of reproductive health and family planning.
Italy: Italy is a European country known for its rich cultural heritage, historical significance, and political evolution. It played a crucial role in shaping the Renaissance, influenced modern art and politics, and became a center for fascism during the early 20th century, especially impacting global conflicts and social movements.
Marriage and Reproduction: Marriage and reproduction refer to the social, legal, and cultural institutions that define relationships and the processes of procreation and child-rearing. These concepts have historically influenced gender roles, family structures, and societal norms, particularly in the context of women's rights and empowerment within 20th-century feminist movements.
Margaret Thatcher: Margaret Thatcher was the first female Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, serving from 1979 to 1990. She was a pivotal figure in global politics, known for her strong conservative policies, which emphasized deregulation, privatization of state-owned industries, and a reduction in the power of trade unions. Thatcher's leadership style and policies had profound impacts on feminism, globalization, the dynamics of the superpower rivalry during the Cold War, and the political landscape in both Britain and beyond.
Mary Robinson: Mary Robinson was a prominent Irish politician, lawyer, and activist who served as the first female President of Ireland from 1990 to 1997. She played a significant role in advocating for women's rights, social justice, and human rights, positioning herself as a leading figure in the context of 20th-century feminism and global human rights movements.
Patriarchal Systems: Patriarchal systems are social structures in which men hold primary power, dominating in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. These systems often create and reinforce gender inequalities that limit women's rights and opportunities, impacting various aspects of society such as family dynamics, economic participation, and cultural norms. The influence of patriarchal systems can be observed in both totalitarian regimes that suppress dissent and in movements for gender equality that challenge these established norms.
Poland: Poland is a central European country with a rich history marked by periods of independence and foreign domination. Its geographical position has made it a significant player in European politics, especially during the World Wars and the Cold War, impacting its role in shaping modern Europe.
Portugal: Portugal is a country located on the Iberian Peninsula, known for its rich maritime history and significant role during the Age of Exploration. It was a pioneer in overseas exploration, establishing trade routes and colonies that shaped global trade and cultural exchanges.
Positions of Power: Positions of Power refer to roles or offices that hold significant authority and influence within a societal, political, or economic context. In the realm of 20th-century feminism, these positions have been pivotal in challenging traditional gender norms and advocating for women's rights, leading to greater representation and participation in various sectors, including politics, education, and the workplace.
Professional Careers: Professional careers refer to occupations that require specialized education, training, and skills, often resulting in higher status and income. In the context of 20th-century feminism, the concept of professional careers became pivotal as women increasingly sought access to various fields traditionally dominated by men, challenging gender roles and promoting equality in the workforce.
Reproductive Rights: Reproductive rights refer to the legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health. This concept encompasses the right to access family planning services, contraception, abortion, and comprehensive sex education, allowing individuals to make informed choices about their reproductive health. The push for reproductive rights has been a central issue in the broader feminist movement of the 20th century, highlighting the importance of women's autonomy over their bodies and health decisions.
Safe and legal abortion: Safe and legal abortion refers to the practice of terminating a pregnancy in a medically approved and regulated environment, ensuring the health and safety of the individual undergoing the procedure. This concept is crucial in the context of women's rights and reproductive health, emphasizing autonomy over one’s body and the ability to make informed choices regarding family planning. The availability of safe and legal abortion has been a central issue within feminist movements, highlighting the struggle for gender equality and access to healthcare services.
Second-wave feminism: Second-wave feminism refers to the resurgence of feminist activism and ideas that emerged in the 1960s and continued into the 1980s, focusing on issues such as equality in the workplace, reproductive rights, and social justice. This movement expanded the scope of feminist thought beyond the legal and political equality addressed by first-wave feminism, advocating for broader social changes and cultural shifts.
Sexual Liberation: Sexual liberation refers to the movement towards greater sexual freedom and autonomy, advocating for the right of individuals to express their sexuality without societal constraints or repression. This concept is closely tied to the feminist movements of the 20th century, as it emphasizes women's rights to control their own bodies, make decisions regarding their sexual health, and challenge traditional norms surrounding sexuality and gender roles.
Simone de Beauvoir: Simone de Beauvoir was a French existentialist philosopher, feminist, and author, best known for her groundbreaking work 'The Second Sex' published in 1949, which examined the construction of women's roles in society. Her ideas laid the foundation for modern feminist thought, highlighting the importance of women's liberation and equality, and influencing both 20th-century feminism and the ongoing discourse about gender roles and identity.
Soviet Union: The Soviet Union was a socialist state that existed from 1922 until its dissolution in 1991, composed of multiple republics under a centralized government based in Moscow. It played a crucial role in global affairs, especially during the Cold War, and was characterized by its communist ideology, state-controlled economy, and authoritarian governance.
Spain: Spain is a nation in southwestern Europe that played a crucial role in European history from the Age of Exploration through the 20th century. It was influential in global politics, trade, and cultural exchanges, notably during its empire's height, which spanned across the Americas, Asia, and parts of Europe.
State-controlled economy: A state-controlled economy is an economic system where the government regulates and controls major aspects of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. This type of economy often arises in contexts where the state aims to achieve specific social or economic objectives, such as equality or national security. In such systems, the government may own key industries or significantly influence market dynamics to fulfill its goals.
The Second Sex: The Second Sex is a foundational text in feminist philosophy written by Simone de Beauvoir, published in 1949. It explores the construction of women's identity and oppression, arguing that women have been historically defined as 'the Other' in a male-dominated society. This work is crucial for understanding the development of feminist thought in the 20th century and its influence on culture, arts, and social change.
United Kingdom: The United Kingdom (UK) is a sovereign country located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe, consisting of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Its historical significance has shaped political, social, and cultural dynamics across Europe and beyond, influencing various movements and events throughout the 20th century and into the 21st century.
Western Europe: Western Europe refers to the region of Europe that includes countries like France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Benelux nations, characterized by a shared history of democratic governance, industrialization, and significant cultural and economic development. This region has played a central role in shaping modern European identity and politics, especially during major events such as World War II and the Cold War.
Women's roles: Women's roles refer to the social, political, and economic responsibilities and activities assigned to or undertaken by women throughout history. These roles have evolved significantly over time, reflecting broader societal changes and movements, particularly in the context of gender equality and feminist movements.
World War II: World War II was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations divided into two main opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis powers. This war marked significant shifts in political power, social structures, and economic landscapes across the globe, leading to profound changes that shaped the modern world.