4.6 Enlightened and Other Approaches to Power

A New Era of Power and Sovereignty

The 18th century marked a turning point in how European states wielded power. While Absolute Monarchies had dominated the 17th century, Enlightenment ideals sparked efforts to rationalize government, centralize authority, and restructure society in ways that reflected reason and progress.

Monarchs known as Enlightened Despots embraced Enlightenment principles—such as legal reform, religious tolerance, and education—but without relinquishing their own power. ==These rulers restructured state institutions to increase efficiency, promote national identity, and reduce the influence of older feudal or religious systems, all while preserving monarchical authority.==

The Peace of Westphalia and the Rise of Prussia

The Peace of Westphalia (1648) marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War and reshaped European political boundaries. It also introduced the principle of ==Westphalian sovereignty—the idea that states had control over their internal affairs, including religion.== This development weakened the authority of the Holy Roman Empire and the Catholic Church, especially in German-speaking lands.

• With religious authority diminished, Prussia emerged as a powerful state in Northern Europe.
• Many German princes adopted Protestantism to escape the Church's influence, allowing rulers like the Hohenzollerns to consolidate power.
• Prussia’s rise reflected the broader trend toward centralized authority, efficient bureaucracy, and strong military institutions.

What Is an Enlightened Despot?

Enlightened despots promoted Enlightenment reforms—such as codified laws, religious tolerance, state-sponsored education, and modernized economies—without sharing political power. These rulers claimed to act in the people’s interest, but did so from above, not through representative government.

Examples of Enlightened and Authoritarian Rule

Napoleon Bonaparte (France, 1800–1815)

After the French Revolution, Napoleon rose to power claiming to uphold revolutionary ideals—but consolidated them under a centralized authoritarian regime.

• Napoleonic Code (1804) abolished hereditary privilege, protected private property, and ensured legal equality for men.
• He introduced state-run education, a merit-based bureaucracy, and religious toleration (though he signed a Concordat with the Catholic Church).
• ==Napoleon promoted nationalism and citizenship, creating a modern French identity that united people under the banner of the state.==
• However, his continental ambitions and autocratic control placed limits on political freedom and ultimately led to military overreach and his downfall after the failed Russian campaign and Waterloo.

Maria Theresa of Austria (1740–1780)

Though initially challenged in the War of Austrian Succession, Maria Theresa successfully asserted her rule and modernized Austria:

• Established a state-funded education system and built new schools for boys and girls.
• Created Austria’s first Supreme Court and codified laws to strengthen central governance.
• Supported medical reform, inoculated her children against smallpox, and established a scientific academy.
• Despite many reforms, she remained devoutly Catholic and exiled Jews, reflecting lingering religious intolerance.

Her reign balanced Enlightenment reforms with traditional monarchy, strengthening Austria’s internal unity and administration.

Joseph II of Austria (1765–1790)

Maria Theresa’s son, Joseph II, is often considered the most radical Enlightened Despot:

• Issued the Edict of Toleration (1781), granting limited religious freedom to Protestants and Jews.
• Reduced the political power of the Catholic Church and closed unproductive monasteries.
• Promoted freedom of the press, abolished serfdom (temporarily), and expanded education.

However, Joseph’s reforms were met with backlash from nobility and clergy, and many were reversed after his death. His reign shows how Enlightenment reforms often clashed with entrenched social structures.

Frederick William I of Prussia (1713–1740)

Called the “Soldier King,” Frederick William I focused on strengthening Prussia’s military and state apparatus:

• Established a professional army and a rotating recruitment system.

• Sought to make Prussia efficient, disciplined, and economically independent.

His reforms laid the groundwork for Prussia’s transformation into a modern European power.

Frederick II “the Great” of Prussia (1740–1786)

Frederick the Great, son of Frederick William I, was a skilled general and Enlightenment thinker:

• Promoted religious tolerance, legal reform, and patronized arts and philosophy (he corresponded with Voltaire).
• Rationalized the legal code and bureaucracy to support merit-based advancement.

Frederick used Enlightenment ideals to build a strong national identity centered on loyalty to the monarch and the state.

Catherine the Great of Russia (1762–1796)

Catherine II, a German princess who took power after a coup, promoted Enlightenment culture while expanding autocracy:

• Corresponded with Enlightenment thinkers and attempted (but failed) to create a constitution.
• Expanded the empire into Poland, Crimea, and Ukraine, reinforcing Russian dominance.
• Promoted women’s education, built libraries and schools, and expanded trade and infrastructure.
• Maintained and expanded serfdom, especially in Ukraine, to gain support from the nobility.

Catherine embraced Enlightenment ideals selectively—advancing culture and administration while preserving the social hierarchy.

Changes and Continuities in European Monarchy: 1450–1815

The transformation of European monarchies from the era of the New Monarchs to Absolutists, and finally to Enlightened Despots, reflects both continuities in centralizing state power and significant changes in the justification and implementation of that power.

Continuities

• Centralization of Power: All three forms of monarchy sought to concentrate power in the hands of the ruler and reduce the influence of external institutions like the Church or feudal nobility.
• Use of Bureaucracy: Professional administrators, taxation systems, and standing armies became tools of statecraft across all three eras.
• Control Over Religion: Each group of monarchs worked to reduce papal influence and control religious affairs within their states.
• Justification of Rule: While the divine right was heavily emphasized under Absolutists, even Enlightened Despots claimed to rule in the "interest of the people"—a secular justification that still consolidated personal power.

Changes Over Time

| Source of Legitimacy | Divine right & traditional monarchy, often with Church approval | Divine Right of Kings; absolute, unchallengeable authority | Utilitarian rule: legitimacy based on service to the people, reform | | Role of the Church | Reduced Church influence, but often collaborated with it (e.g., Concordats) | Church subordinated to the monarch (e.g., Louis XIV revoking Edict of Nantes) | Church influence reduced; more religious toleration (e.g., Edict of Toleration) | | Control Over Nobility | Undermined feudal nobles by creating “Nobles of the Robe” | Weakened nobility further; replaced with loyal bureaucrats and militaries | Nobility often retained privileges but were used to implement reforms | | Economic Approach | Mercantilism began to emerge | Strong state-directed mercantilism (e.g., Colbert in France) | Shift toward laissez-faire and capitalism (e.g., Adam Smith's ideas influence) | | Relationship with the People | Subjects, not citizens—expected loyalty | Still largely subjects; low political participation | Begins to embrace citizenship rhetoric, legal equality, basic rights | | View on Reform | Minimal reform—focused on consolidating control | Resisted reform unless it helped centralize authority | Embraced legal, educational, and religious reforms (though selectively) | | Key Figures | Ferdinand & Isabella, Henry VII, Francis I | Louis XIV, Peter the Great, Charles I | Catherine the Great, Frederick the Great, Joseph II, Napoleon |

National Identity and State Power

From 1450 to 1815, the function and structure of the state evolved dramatically:

• New Monarchs centralized power by curbing feudalism and controlling religion.
• ==Enlightened despots further professionalized government and sought to justify their rule through reform and national pride.==
• Napoleon took these ideals and fused them with nationalism, inspiring other European states to define their own national identities in opposition or imitation.

While many reforms strengthened the state, they also sowed the seeds of liberal revolutions, especially as Enlightenment ideals about representation, rights, and sovereignty took root among the people.

Why This Matters

The 18th century was a pivotal moment in state-building and identity formation. Monarchs experimented with Enlightenment principles to improve their rule, but tensions between reform and control persisted.

These developments:

• Laid the groundwork for modern bureaucracy, centralized law, and secular governance.
• Fostered national consciousness and public opinion.
• Highlighted contradictions between autocratic rule and Enlightenment values, which would later fuel revolutions in France, Latin America, and beyond.

Understanding Enlightened approaches to power helps explain the transition from absolutism to modern nation-states, and the fragile balance between authority and reform that defined 18th-century Europe.

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