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Table of Contents
Unit 2 Overview: Age of Reformation
2.1 Contextualizing 16th and 17th-Century Challenges and Developments
2.2 Luther and the Protestant Reformation
2.3 Protestant Reform Continues
2.4 Wars of Religion
2.5 The Catholic Reformation
2.6 16th-Century Society & Politics in Europe
2.7 Mannerism and Baroque Art
2.8 Causation in the Age of Reformation and the Wars of Religion

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2.2 Luther and the Protestant Reformation

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This topic and 2.3 (Protestant Reform Continues) both focus on the Protestant Reformation. However, 2.2 primarily examines its causes. While the causes of the Reformation are complex, we will focus on key reformers and their beliefs.

Timeline

This timeline contextualizes key events leading to the Protestant Reformation:

  • 1492: Erasmus is ordained as a Catholic priest.
  • 1507: Martin Luther is ordained as a Catholic priest.
  • 1509: Erasmus writes and publishes Praise of Folly in Latin.
  • 1517: Luther nails his 95 Theses to the door of the church in Wittenberg. This event is widely considered the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
  • 1521: Luther refuses to recant his writings at the Diet of Worms and is declared an outlaw by the Edict of Worms.
  • 1522: Luther translates the New Testament into the German vernacular.
  • 1524: The German Peasants' War begins.
  • 1529: Luther publishes his Catechism.

Who Was Martin Luther?

Martin Luther was a German monk and theologian. Records depict him as a dedicated religious scholar who took matters of faith, particularly salvation, very seriously. Although initially a Catholic priest, he grew increasingly critical of the Catholic Church’s perceived hypocrisy and abuses.

The 95 Theses

In 1517, while serving as a lecturer in Wittenberg, Martin Luther wrote his 95 Theses, criticizing the sale of indulgences—documents that allegedly reduced time in purgatory.

Key Point: Luther intended his 95 Theses to spark an academic debate rather than an outright rebellion. Posting such documents on the church door was a common practice.

However, due to the printing press, Luther’s criticisms spread rapidly. By 1518, his views had ignited controversy, and his theological beliefs evolved toward the doctrine of salvation by grace alone—rejecting the idea that good works or indulgences could secure salvation.

Causes of the Protestant Reformation

Check 2.1 Contextualizing 16th and 17th-Century Challenges and Developments for a full understanding of the specific reasons for Martin Luther’s and other’s dissatisfaction of the church. As a quick reminder:

  • Indulgences: Documents sold by the Catholic Church that absolved individuals of sins and reduced time in purgatory. Essentially, the Church claimed that by paying money, people could secure salvation for themselves or their family members.
  • Clerical Immorality: Many clergy members broke Church rules, engaging in behaviors like drunkenness and violating their vows of celibacy.
  • Believed the Bible should be accessible to common people in their native/vernacular language.
  • Pluralism: Holding multiple church positions simultaneously, leading to corruption and neglect of duties.

Defining the Protestant Reformation

A clear definition of the Protestant Reformation is essential for answering SAQs, DBQs, and LEQs:

⭐ The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century religious movement that challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to the establishment of Protestant denominations and significant religious, political, and social changes across Europe.

Diet of Worms (1521)

In 1521, Luther was summoned to the Diet of Worms, an imperial assembly, where he was asked to recant his writings.

(Note: A "Diet" was an assembly, and "Worms" was the city where it was held.)

Luther refused, reportedly stating:

“Here I stand. I can do no other. God help me. Amen.” (This statement, though widely attributed to Luther, may be apocryphal.)

As a result, Luther was excommunicated and declared an outlaw by the Edict of Worms, meaning anyone could legally kill him. He took refuge in Wartburg Castle, where he continued his work.

Image Courtesy of Wikimedia

Protestantism

Unlike the Catholic Church, Protestantism does not have a single unifying institution. As a result, many different Protestant sects emerged as followers of Luther and others developed their own interpretations of Christian faith. Check the table at the bottom of the study guide for the differences between Lutheranism and Catholicism.

John Calvin and Calvinism

One key reformer influenced by Luther was John Calvin (1509–1564), a French theologian who founded Calvinism.

==A defining belief of Calvinism is predestination: the idea that God has already determined who will be saved (the elect) and who will be damned. Since individuals could not know their fate, Calvinists often viewed wealth and prosperity as signs of divine favor.==

Later, sociologist Max Weber argued that Calvinist attitudes toward work and prosperity contributed to the development of capitalism, coining the term Protestant Work Ethic.

Responses to Luther and Calvin

Luther and Calvin inspired other reformers and movements:

  • Ulrich Zwingli led reforms in Switzerland, emphasizing the Bible as the sole authority in faith.
  • The Anabaptists rejected infant baptism and opposed state involvement in religion, leading to their persecution.
  • Luther’s ideas also influenced the German Peasants’ Revolt (1524–1525), though he ultimately condemned the uprising.

Core Protestant Beliefs

Protestants not only rejected Catholic hierarchy but also developed distinct theological beliefs:

  1. Sola fide (faith alone): Salvation comes through faith in Jesus Christ, not good works or indulgences.
  2. Sola scriptura (scripture alone): The Bible is the sole authority in matters of faith, rejecting Catholic traditions such as saint veneration.
  3. Priesthood of all believers: Every believer has direct access to God without needing clergy as intermediaries.

Comparison: Catholicism vs. Lutheranism

CatholicismLutheranism
Continuities
SaviorJesus ChristJesus Christ
Holy BookBibleBible
Changes
Authority of the PopeConfirmedDenied
Sole AuthorityThe PopeThe Bible
ClergyChurch Hierarchy"Priesthood of all believers"
Confession of SinsThrough priests to GodThrough prayers to God
Means of SalvationFaith and Good WorksFaith Alone (Sola fide)
Place of WorshipLarge Ornate ChurchesSimple Churches

This concludes the overview of 2.2 Luther and the Protestant Reformation. The next section, 2.3 Protestant Reform Continues, will examine the expansion and consequences of Protestant movements across Europe.

🎥 Watch: AP European History - Martin Luther and Reformation

🎥 Watch: AP European History - Reformation 2.0

Key Terms to Review (16)

Anabaptists: Anabaptists were a radical Protestant sect that emerged in the early 16th century, advocating for adult baptism and a separation from state influence in religious matters. Their beliefs were rooted in the idea of voluntary faith and the rejection of infant baptism, viewing it as unbiblical. This movement was part of the broader Protestant Reformation, which sought to reform the practices and beliefs of the Catholic Church.
Calvinism: Calvinism is a branch of Protestantism that follows the theological teachings of John Calvin, emphasizing predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the authority of scripture. It significantly influenced the development of various religious and political movements across Europe, shaping societies in both religious and secular contexts.
Diet of Worms: The Diet of Worms was an imperial council held in 1521, convened by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to address the growing concerns regarding Martin Luther's teachings and the Protestant Reformation. This assembly marked a pivotal moment in religious and political history, as it culminated in Luther's refusal to recant his 95 Theses and other writings, thereby solidifying the divide between the Catholic Church and emerging Protestant beliefs.
German Peasant's Revolt: The German Peasant's Revolt was a widespread uprising in the early 16th century, primarily from 1524 to 1525, where peasants in Germany revolted against oppressive feudal practices and demanded social and economic reforms. This movement is often linked to the broader social changes initiated by the Protestant Reformation, particularly the ideas promoted by Martin Luther that encouraged individuals to question authority, including the social hierarchy.
John Calvin: John Calvin was a French theologian and reformer in the Protestant Reformation known for his influential work in developing the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. His ideas on predestination, the sovereignty of God, and the importance of a disciplined Christian life greatly shaped the development of Protestant thought and had significant impacts on various aspects of European society and politics.
Martin Luther: Martin Luther was a German theologian and religious reformer whose actions sparked the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. He challenged the Catholic Church's practices, especially the sale of indulgences, and emphasized salvation through faith alone, reshaping the religious landscape of Europe.
Predestination: Predestination is a theological concept that asserts that God has already determined the fate of individuals, specifically regarding salvation and damnation, before they are born. This idea gained prominence during the Protestant Reformation, especially through the teachings of John Calvin, highlighting the belief in God's sovereignty and grace.
Priesthood of All Believers: The Priesthood of All Believers is a theological concept introduced by Martin Luther, asserting that every Christian has direct access to God and does not require mediation by a priest. This idea was revolutionary during the Protestant Reformation as it challenged the established authority of the Catholic Church and emphasized individual faith and personal relationship with God. It supported the notion that all Christians, regardless of their position or vocation, could serve God and contribute to the church's mission.
Printing Press: The printing press is a mechanical device invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century that revolutionized the production of books and written materials by allowing for mass printing. This innovation played a crucial role in spreading ideas, facilitating literacy, and influencing cultural and religious changes across Europe during the Renaissance and Reformation.
Protestant Work Ethic: The Protestant Work Ethic is a sociological concept that emphasizes hard work, discipline, and frugality as a result of one's faith in Protestantism, particularly Calvinism. It connects the idea that diligence and a strong sense of responsibility in one's work can lead to both material success and spiritual salvation, influencing economic practices and social behaviors during the Reformation and beyond.
Sola Fide: Sola Fide, meaning 'faith alone' in Latin, is a fundamental doctrine of the Protestant Reformation asserting that faith in Jesus Christ is the only means by which individuals can attain salvation. This principle was pivotal in Martin Luther's teachings, emphasizing that good works or adherence to church rituals are insufficient for salvation, thus challenging the established Catholic Church's teachings. Sola Fide represented a shift toward personal faith and the belief that salvation is a gift from God, accessible to all believers.
Sola Scriptura: Sola Scriptura is a Christian doctrine that asserts the Bible is the sole infallible source of authority for faith and practice. This principle emerged prominently during the Protestant Reformation, particularly through the teachings of Martin Luther, who argued that scripture alone was sufficient for understanding God's will, challenging the Catholic Church's reliance on tradition and church authority. By promoting the idea that individuals could interpret the Bible themselves, Sola Scriptura played a crucial role in shaping Protestant thought and facilitating a more personal relationship with faith.
The Elect: The Elect refers to a specific group of people chosen by God for salvation, a concept central to Calvinist theology that emerged during the Protestant Reformation. This belief highlights the notion of predestination, where God has predetermined who will be saved and who will not, which was a departure from the Catholic emphasis on free will and good works. The idea played a crucial role in shaping the religious, social, and political dynamics of Reformed communities during this transformative period.
95 Theses: The 95 Theses were a list of propositions for debate written by Martin Luther in 1517 that criticized the practices of the Catholic Church, particularly the sale of indulgences. This document is often seen as the catalyst for the Protestant Reformation, as it sparked widespread debate and led to significant religious and political changes across Europe.
Ulrich Zwingli: Ulrich Zwingli was a Swiss Protestant reformer who played a crucial role in the early stages of the Reformation, advocating for a break from Catholic traditions and the establishment of a reformed Christian church. He emphasized the importance of Scripture and rejected practices not explicitly supported by the Bible, distinguishing himself from contemporaries like Martin Luther in key theological areas. His reforms significantly impacted religious practices in Zurich and laid groundwork for later Protestant movements.
Wittenberg Church: The Wittenberg Church, also known as the Castle Church, is a significant Protestant landmark located in Wittenberg, Germany. It is famously known for being the site where Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, marking a pivotal moment in the Protestant Reformation and challenging the Catholic Church's practices, particularly the sale of indulgences.