2.6 Legislative Systems

After exploring the executive branch in depth, it's time to examine the legislative systems of our AP Comparative Government course countries: UK 🇬🇧, Russia 🇷🇺, Iran 🇮🇷, Mexico 🇲🇽, China 🇨🇳, and Nigeria 🇳🇬.

The legislative branch is one of the most powerful bodies of government, responsible for passing laws and shaping government policies. Understanding each country's legislative structure and function is crucial for the AP exam.

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Key Terms 📇

• Unicameral: 1️⃣ chamber in the legislature
• Bicameral: 2️⃣ chambers in the legislature
• Parliamentary Hybrid: A system unique to Russia where the President is directly elected by the people but appoints the Prime Minister from the lower house of the legislature (Duma).

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Benefits of Each Legislative System

✅ Unicameral Systems (🇮🇷 🇨🇳)

• Simplicity: Fewer procedural rules make legislative processes faster and more accessible to the public.
• Efficiency: Less duplication of work and fewer disagreements than in bicameral systems.
• Cost Saving: Smaller staff and reduced resource usage lower expenses.
• Accountability: With only one chamber, voters can more easily hold their representatives responsible.

✅ Bicameral Systems (🇬🇧 🇳🇬 🇲🇽)

• Checks and Balances: Bills must pass both chambers, reducing the risk of power abuse.
• Diverse Representation: With two chambers, more groups and viewpoints are included in policymaking.
• Greater Stability: Bicameral systems are less prone to rapid, drastic changes.

✅ Parliamentary Hybrid System (🇷🇺)

• Stability: The directly elected President acts as a check on both the legislative branch and the Prime Minister.
• Responsiveness: With both a Prime Minister and a President, citizens may feel their concerns are better addressed.

Course Country Examples

1. United Kingdom 🇬🇧

Parliamentary System — Bicameral Legislature

• Structure:
  • House of Lords 🏠 🤵🏻 — Primarily composed of life peers (appointed for distinguished service) and hereditary peers (inherited seats). ==The House of Lords is not directly elected.==
  • House of Commons 🏠 👨🏽 — Consists of 650 seats and is directly elected. The majority party selects the Prime Minister.
• Function:
  • House of Lords — Limited power; can delay legislation and debate technicalities of bills.
  • House of Commons — The primary seat of power; passes legislation, controls budget, and appoints the Prime Minister.

The House of Lords is the only hereditary house in the world today. Historically, this chamber consisted of both hereditary peers (seats passed down through families) and life peers (appointed for lifelong or distinguished service). Although neither type of peer is elected, the House of Lords is now primarily composed of life peers, with fewer than 92 hereditary peers remaining as of June 2020. While there have been ongoing discussions about transforming the House of Lords into an elected body, the chamber has successfully delayed such changes using its limited power.

The House of Commons, on the other hand, is the directly elected branch of Parliament and holds 650 seats. The Prime Minister is not directly elected by the people but is instead chosen by the majority party in the House of Commons. While multiple political parties exist in the UK, the system typically functions as a two-party system similar to the United States. The opposition party (minority party) plays a key role in checking the power of the majority party.

In terms of function, the House of Lords has minimal power in modern UK politics. While it once had the authority to veto bills, the 1911 Parliament Act stripped this power, limiting the House of Lords to delaying legislation for up to two years (later reduced to one year in 1949). The House of Lords can also debate technicalities of proposed bills but cannot amend Money Bills.

The House of Commons has become the seat of power in the UK. Due to the fused nature of the executive and legislative branches, the Prime Minister is both a member of Parliament and the nation's leader, making the House of Commons especially influential. Over time, Parliamentary Acts in 1911 and 1949 significantly reduced the House of Lords' powers, strengthening the House of Commons' dominance.

https://www.needpix.com/photo/1318846/britain-british-politics-political-system

2. Russia 🇷🇺

Parliamentary Hybrid System — Bicameral Legislature

• Structure:
  • State Duma 🏠 — The directly elected lower house with 450 members, half chosen through proportional representation and half through majority elections.
  • Federation Council 🏠 — The upper house, composed of two representatives from each region (one appointed by the governor and one by the regional legislature).
• Function:
  • State Duma — Passes legislation, confirms presidential appointees, and approves the budget. However, its power is limited due to Putin's influence and the President’s power of decree.
  • Federation Council — Represents regional interests but has limited influence; it can reject legislation, but the Duma can override that decision.

Russia’s Federal Assembly is also a bicameral legislature with two houses: the State Duma (lower house) and the Federation Council (upper house).

The State Duma consists of 450 representatives, half of whom are elected through proportional representation and the other half through direct majority elections (one deputy per district). The Federation Council is comprised of two representatives from each of Russia’s 89 federal regions — one chosen by the governor and one by the regional legislature.

In terms of function, the State Duma acts as the primary legislative body, with the ability to pass laws, confirm presidential appointees, and approve the national budget. However, the executive branch, under Putin’s leadership, holds considerably more power. With 340 out of 450 seats in the Duma currently controlled by Putin’s United Russia Party, there is little effective opposition to check his power. Additionally, the Russian President wields the power of decree, allowing laws to be passed without legislative input.

The Federation Council, much like the UK’s House of Lords, has minimal power. While it can reject legislation from the Duma, the Duma can override this rejection, further limiting the Federation Council’s influence.

3. Iran 🇮🇷

Theocratic System — Unicameral Legislature

• Structure:
  • Majles 🏠 — A 290-member body directly elected through single-member districts.
• Function:
  • Passes laws (subject to approval by the Guardian Council to ensure compliance with Islamic law).
  • Appoints six members of the Guardian Council (from a pre-approved list).
  • Can approve budgets, treaties, and appointments but holds limited power due to dominance by the Supreme Leader.

Iran’s legislature, known as the Majles, is unicameral with 290 seats. Members are directly elected by citizens in single-member districts, and voters must be 18 years or older to participate.

Despite its electoral structure, the Majles' power has gradually diminished over time, with much of its authority transferred to the executive branch under the Supreme Leader’s influence. Nonetheless, the Majles still retains some significant powers, including the ability to:

• Enact or change laws (with Guardian Council approval to ensure alignment with Islamic law).
• Interpret laws.
• Appoint 6 of the 12 members of the Guardian Council (from a pre-approved list).
• Remove cabinet members (though not the President).
• Approve budgets, appointments, treaties, and loans.

4. Mexico 🇲🇽

Presidential System — Bicameral Legislature

• Structure:
  • Chamber of Deputies 🏠 — 500 members serving three-year terms; 300 are elected by single-member districts, and 200 by proportional representation.
  • Senate 🏠 — 128 members serving six-year terms; three senators represent each state and one represents the Federal District.
• Function:
  • Chamber of Deputies — Verifies election results, levies taxes, and approves legislation.
  • Senate — Confirms Supreme Court appointments, approves treaties, and can intervene in state matters.

Mexico's bicameral legislature is divided into the Chamber of Deputies (lower house) and the Senate (upper house), both of which are directly elected by the people.

The Chamber of Deputies consists of 500 members. Of these, 300 deputies are elected from single-member districts, while the remaining 200 deputies are elected through proportional representation. Deputies serve three-year terms.

The Senate has 128 members who serve six-year terms. Each of Mexico’s 31 states and the federal district elects three senators, while additional senators are chosen through proportional representation.

Functionally, both houses are responsible for representing the public and shaping policy. The Chamber of Deputies verifies election results, levies taxes, and approves general legislation. Meanwhile, the Senate holds greater oversight powers, including confirming presidential Supreme Court appointments, approving treaties, and authorizing federal intervention in state matters.

5. China 🇨🇳

One-Party System — Unicameral Legislature

• Structure:
  • National People's Congress (NPC) 🏠 — Although directly elected, it functions under CCP control.
• Function:
  • The NPC technically holds significant legislative powers, including appointing the President and Vice President.
  • However, real power lies with the Chinese Communist Party and its Politburo, making the NPC largely symbolic.

China’s unicameral legislature, the National People's Congress (NPC), is directly elected by the people but is heavily controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

While the Constitution technically recognizes the NPC as China’s most powerful institution, in practice, it holds no real power. The NPC, like the executive and judiciary branches, is heavily influenced by the CCP, and no other political parties are eligible for election.

Although the NPC’s official duties include selecting the President and Vice President, there is only ever one CCP-sponsored candidate for each role, effectively eliminating voter choice. While the NPC’s authority is symbolic, its function is important for publicly announcing Politburo decisions, giving the illusion of legitimacy to the CCP’s decisions.

6. Nigeria 🇳🇬

Presidential System — Bicameral Legislature

• Structure:
  • House of Representatives 🏠 — 360 members elected via plurality vote from single-member districts.
  • Senate 🏠 — 109 senators, with three senators from each state and one from the Federal Capital Territory.
• Function:
  • House of Representatives — Passes legislation and represents the population.
  • Senate — Impeaches the President, confirms appointments, and also passes legislation.

Nigeria’s bicameral legislature consists of the House of Representatives (lower house) and the Senate (upper house), both of which are directly elected by the people.

The House of Representatives is composed of 360 members, each representing a single-member district and elected through plurality voting (the candidate with the most votes wins).

The Senate includes 109 members, with three senatorsbrepresenting each of Nigeria’s 36 states and one senator representing the Federal Capital Territory. Like the House, senators are elected by popular vote.

While Nigeria’s legislature has historically faced restrictions under military rule, it has recently grown into a stronger check on presidential power. The Senate holds particular influence, with the exclusive power to impeach the President and confirm presidential appointees. Meanwhile, both chambers share the responsibility of passing legislation and representing the public.

You have everything you need to know for the exam for the structure and function of the legislature in each of our course countries. Now it is time to move onto the next key topic, 2.7! ➡️