7.4 Material culture and its interpretation

Anglo-Saxon artifacts tell us a lot about life in early medieval England. From weapons and jewelry to tools and pottery, these objects reveal social status, craftsmanship, and daily routines. They also show how Anglo-Saxons traded with other cultures and adopted new ideas.

Interpreting these artifacts isn't always straightforward. Some materials don't survive well, and we only have fragments of the past. We need to use other sources like texts and art to fill in the gaps. Still, material culture gives us a unique window into Anglo-Saxon society.

Anglo-Saxon Artifact Types

Common Artifacts and Their Materials

• Anglo-Saxon archaeological sites have yielded a wide range of artifacts made from materials such as metal (iron, bronze, silver, gold), glass, bone, antler, stone, wood, and clay
• Common types of Anglo-Saxon artifacts include:
  • Weapons (swords, spears, shields)
  • Jewelry (brooches, necklaces, rings)
  • Tools (knives, axes, awls)
  • Ceramics (pottery vessels)
  • Personal items (combs, gaming pieces, clothing fasteners)

Artifact Contexts and Distribution

• Artifacts are often found in burial contexts, such as inhumation and cremation graves, as well as in settlement sites, including rural villages and urban centers (Sutton Hoo, West Stow)
• The types and quantities of artifacts can vary depending on factors such as:
  • Social status (elite vs. common)
  • Gender (male vs. female)
  • Age (adult vs. child)
  • Regional differences within Anglo-Saxon England (Kent vs. Northumbria)
• Some artifacts, such as high-status jewelry (garnet cloisonné brooches) and weaponry (pattern-welded swords), are more commonly associated with elite individuals, while others, like basic tools (spindle whorls) and pottery (plain handmade vessels), are found across a broader spectrum of society

Anglo-Saxon Material Culture: Production, Use, and Symbolism

Artifact Production Techniques and Craftsmanship

• Anglo-Saxon artifacts were produced using a variety of techniques, including:
  • Metalworking (casting, forging, gilding)
  • Glassworking (bead-making, vessel production)
  • Bone and antler carving (combs, gaming pieces)
  • Woodworking (boxes, furniture, buildings)
  • Pottery production (handmade and wheel-thrown vessels)
• The production of artifacts often required specialized skills and knowledge, with some craftspeople likely working in dedicated workshops or as part of a larger estate or monastery (Ipswich ware pottery, Coppergate helmet)

Practical Functions and Social Meanings

• Many artifacts had practical functions, such as tools for agriculture (sickles, plowshares), craft production (loom weights, anvils), and daily life (knives, keys)
• Others served as markers of social status, religious belief, or cultural identity:
  • The use of certain materials, such as precious metals and garnets in jewelry, or intricate designs on weaponry, could convey the wealth, power, and prestige of the owner (Staffordshire Hoard)
  • Religious artifacts, such as crosses and reliquaries, reflected Christian beliefs and practices (Ruthwell Cross, St. Cuthbert's coffin)
  • Items associated with feasting and drinking, like glass vessels and metal cauldrons, played a role in social rituals and hospitality (Sutton Hoo Mound 1 burial)

Symbolism and Iconography

• Symbolism played a significant role in Anglo-Saxon material culture, with some artifacts featuring complex iconography that may have held religious, mythological, or apotropaic meanings
• Common symbolic motifs include:
  • Zoomorphic designs (animal-shaped brooches, interlace patterns)
  • Anthropomorphic figures (human-shaped figurines, mask helmets)
  • Christian imagery (crosses, saints, biblical scenes)
  • Abstract or geometric patterns (key patterns, spirals, knotwork)
• The adoption and adaptation of styles and motifs from other cultures, such as Germanic (Style I and II animal art), Celtic (trumpet spirals), and Mediterranean traditions (vine scrolls), reflects the dynamic nature of Anglo-Saxon art and the cultural exchanges that shaped it

Artifacts and Anglo-Saxon Society

Social Structure and Hierarchy

• The distribution and context of artifacts can provide insights into the social structure and hierarchy of Anglo-Saxon society, including:
  • The presence of elite individuals (rich grave goods, high-status settlements)
  • Craft specialists (tools and waste materials associated with specific crafts)
  • Different social classes (variations in artifact types and materials across sites)
• Burial practices and grave goods can shed light on the social identity, status, and roles of individuals, as well as the cultural beliefs and practices surrounding death and the afterlife (weapon burials, bed burials, cremation urns)

Economic Activities and Trade

• The presence of certain types of artifacts can indicate economic activities and trade networks:
  • Trade goods (imported pottery, glass, and coinage)
  • Production debris (metalworking slag, pottery wasters)
  • Agricultural tools (sickles, quern stones)
  • Fishing and hunting equipment (net weights, arrowheads)
• The distribution of artifacts across settlements and regions can provide evidence for the development of markets, urban centers, and long-distance trade routes (Ipswich, London, York)

Cultural Interactions and Transformations

• The use of specific materials, technologies, and styles can reflect cultural influences and interactions, both within Anglo-Saxon England and with neighboring regions:
  • Celtic influences (penannular brooches, hanging bowls)
  • Frankish connections (gold coinage, wheel-thrown pottery)
  • Scandinavian presence (Thor's hammer pendants, Viking-style jewelry)
• Changes in artifact types, styles, and production over time can provide evidence for cultural, social, and economic transformations:
  • The impact of Christianization (crosses, church architecture)
  • The emergence of new political and trade networks (burghs, emporia)
  • The effects of Viking raids and settlements (hybrid styles, Danelaw coinage)

Interpreting Anglo-Saxon Material Culture: Challenges and Limitations

Preservation and Archaeological Biases

• The survival and preservation of artifacts can be affected by factors such as:
  • Soil conditions (acidity, moisture)
  • Post-depositional processes (erosion, disturbance)
  • Historical disturbances (looting, agricultural activity)
• These factors can lead to an incomplete or biased archaeological record, with some materials (organic remains) or contexts (poor graves) underrepresented

Interpretive Frameworks and Comparative Analysis

• The interpretation of artifacts relies on comparative analysis with other finds, as well as the use of historical, literary, and artistic sources
• However, these sources may be limited or subject to their own biases and limitations:
  • Historical documents (chronicles, charters) may focus on elite perspectives
  • Literary works (poetry, riddles) may employ symbolic or metaphorical language
  • Artistic representations (manuscript illustrations, stone sculptures) may be stylized or idealized
• The meaning and significance of artifacts can be multifaceted and context-dependent, requiring careful consideration of their production, use, and deposition within specific social, cultural, and historical settings

Ethnic and Cultural Identities

• The attribution of artifacts to specific ethnic or cultural groups, such as "Anglo-Saxon" or "Viking," can be problematic
• These identities were fluid, complex, and subject to change over time:
  • "Anglo-Saxon" encompasses multiple groups (Angles, Saxons, Jutes) and regional variations
  • "Viking" refers to a diverse range of Scandinavian peoples and their descendants
  • Hybrid identities and cultural mixing were common, especially in areas of sustained contact (Danelaw)
• Artifacts may reflect multiple influences and cannot always be easily categorized along ethnic lines

History of Archaeological Research

• The study of Anglo-Saxon material culture has been shaped by the history of archaeological research, including:
  • Early antiquarian collecting and unsystematic excavations
  • The development of typological and chronological frameworks (Åberg, Leeds)
  • Changing theoretical approaches (culture-history, processual, post-processual)
• These factors have influenced the interpretation and understanding of artifacts over time, and new discoveries and approaches continue to challenge and refine our knowledge of Anglo-Saxon material culture (Staffordshire Hoard, Prittlewell princely burial)