7.4 Nationalism, Liberalism, Conservatism, and the Political Order
4 min read•june 24, 2024
The 19th century saw major political shifts in Europe. , , and shaped governments and inspired revolutions. These ideologies influenced the formation of political parties and the expansion of voting rights across the continent.
Italian and German unification were key events of the era. Leaders like Cavour and Bismarck used diplomacy and war to unite their nations. The aimed to restore balance after Napoleon, but its conservative policies eventually fueled nationalist movements.
Political Ideologies and Movements in 19th Century Europe
Nationalism, Liberalism, Conservatism
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- Nationalism
- Emphasized loyalty and devotion to one's nation or ethnic group based on shared language (French), culture (Italian Renaissance), history (German unification), and a desire for political autonomy
- Promoted the idea of national and the creation of nation-states, inspiring movements like Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire
- Liberalism
- Advocated for individual rights (freedom of speech), civil liberties (due process), and limited government intervention in personal and economic affairs
- Supported free markets, private property rights, and the rule of law, as exemplified by Adam Smith's economic theories
- Championed constitutional government and representative democracy, leading to the expansion of suffrage rights (voting) in many European countries
- Conservatism
- Sought to preserve traditional social hierarchies (aristocracy), institutions (monarchy), and values (religion) in the face of revolutionary changes
- Opposed rapid change and favored gradual reforms to maintain stability, as seen in the policies of Austrian Chancellor
- Emphasized the importance of religion (Catholicism), monarchy (Bourbon Restoration in France), and the landed aristocracy (Junkers in Prussia) in society
- Impact on political landscape
- These ideologies shaped political discourse and inspired revolutionary movements like the 1848 Revolutions across Europe
- Led to the formation of political parties (Whigs and Tories in Britain) and the restructuring of governments (constitutional monarchies)
- Influenced the creation of new constitutions (Belgian Constitution of 1831) and the expansion of suffrage rights (Reform Act of 1832 in Britain)
Italian and German Unification
- Italian unification ()
- Driven by the desire to unite Italian states under a single national identity, overcoming regional differences and foreign domination
- Key figures:
- , founder of , a revolutionary organization promoting Italian unity and republicanism
- Camillo Benso di Cavour, Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, who used diplomacy and military alliances to further unification
- , a revolutionary leader who led the Red Shirts in the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
- Sardinia-Piedmont played a central role in the unification process, expanding its territory and influence through successful wars against Austria (1859) and the Papal States (1860)
- Unification achieved through a combination of diplomacy (Plombières Agreement), military campaigns (), and popular support (plebiscites)
- German unification
- Preceded by the Zollverein, a customs union that promoted economic integration and reduced trade barriers among German states
- , the Prussian Chancellor, orchestrated the unification process through a series of calculated diplomatic maneuvers and wars
- Bismarck employed "," a pragmatic approach to achieve Prussian dominance, often disregarding moral or ideological considerations
- Key events:
- Schleswig-Holstein conflict (1864), in which Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and gained control over the disputed duchies
- (1866), resulting in Prussia's victory and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs
- (1870-1871), which led to the defeat of France and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by Prussia
- Culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871 under Kaiser Wilhelm I, with Bismarck as the Imperial Chancellor
- Challenges faced by newly unified nations
- Integrating diverse regions with different political (absolutism vs. ), economic (industrialized vs. agricultural), and cultural traditions (dialects and customs)
- Establishing centralized governments and national institutions, such as a unified currency (Italian lira) and a federal structure (German Reichstag)
- Addressing regional disparities and ensuring equal representation for all citizens, particularly in the face of lingering regional identities and loyalties
Congress of Vienna
- Goals of the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
- Restore in Europe after the , preventing any single nation from dominating the continent
- Prevent the spread of revolutionary ideals and maintain the status quo, protecting the interests of the ruling monarchies
- Redraw political boundaries and redistribute territories among the victorious powers, rewarding allies and punishing France
- Key principles and outcomes
- Legitimacy: Restoration of monarchies and pre-Napoleonic ruling families, such as the Bourbons in France and Spain
- Compensation: Territorial gains for countries that fought against Napoleon, including Prussia (Rhineland), Russia (Poland), and Austria (northern Italy)
- Containment: Creation of buffer states to prevent future French aggression, such as the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the German Confederation
- : An agreement among Russia, Austria, and Prussia to uphold Christian values and suppress revolutionary movements, reflecting the conservative nature of the post-Napoleonic order
- Long-term effects on European politics
- Maintained relative peace and stability in Europe for several decades through the , a system of regular diplomatic conferences and collective action
- Suppressed nationalist and liberal movements, leading to a period of conservative dominance under the leadership of figures like Metternich and Tsar Alexander I
- Sowed the seeds for future conflicts as nationalist aspirations and demands for political reform grew stronger, culminating in the Revolutions of 1848 and the unification of Italy and Germany
Key Terms to Review (37)
Age of Metternich: The Age of Metternich refers to the period in Europe from 1815 to 1848, characterized by the political dominance of Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich. This era was marked by a conservative reaction against the liberal and nationalist movements that emerged following the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, as well as efforts to maintain a balance of power through diplomacy and alliances.
Austro-Prussian War: The Austro-Prussian War, fought in 1866, was a conflict between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire that led to the end of Austrian influence over German affairs and paved the way for German unification under Prussian leadership. This war was fueled by rising nationalism among various German states and the desire for a more liberal political order, contrasting with Austria's conservative approach to governance.
Balance of Power: The balance of power is a political theory that suggests that national security is enhanced when military capability is distributed so that no one nation is strong enough to dominate all others. This concept connects to the dynamics of nationalism, liberalism, and conservatism, influencing the political order by fostering alliances and counter-alliances aimed at maintaining equilibrium among competing powers.
Bildungsbürgertum: Bildungsbürgertum refers to the educated middle class in 19th-century Germany that emerged from the Enlightenment and was characterized by a strong emphasis on education, cultural values, and civic responsibility. This social group played a significant role in shaping modern German identity, influencing movements related to nationalism, liberalism, and the political order through their advocacy for social reform and greater political participation.
Concert of Europe: The Concert of Europe was a system of international relations and collective security established after the Napoleonic Wars, aimed at maintaining the balance of power in Europe and preventing major conflicts. It was characterized by the collaboration of the great powers, including Austria, Britain, Prussia, Russia, and later France, to manage political issues through diplomacy rather than warfare. This cooperative approach influenced political ideologies, such as nationalism, liberalism, and conservatism, shaping the political order in 19th-century Europe.
Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was a diplomatic conference held in 1814-1815 to restore stability and order in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. It aimed to balance power among European nations, suppress revolutionary movements, and establish a conservative political order, shaping the continent's future in the context of rising nationalism and liberalism.
Conservatism: Conservatism is a political ideology that emphasizes the value of traditional institutions, practices, and values, advocating for stability and continuity in society. It often resists rapid change and prioritizes maintaining established social orders, which can include support for monarchy, organized religion, and a strong sense of nationalism. This ideology plays a significant role in shaping political orders and responses to revolutionary ideologies.
Constitutionalism: Constitutionalism is a political philosophy that emphasizes the importance of a constitution in governing a state, ensuring that power is limited and that the rights of individuals are protected. This concept promotes the idea of rule of law, where governmental authority is derived from and limited by a written or unwritten constitution. It was fundamental during significant revolutions and movements, as it shaped the development of democratic ideals and influenced the rise of nationalism, liberalism, and conservatism.
Count Camillo di Cavour: Count Camillo di Cavour was an Italian statesman and a key figure in the unification of Italy during the 19th century. He served as the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia and was instrumental in the political maneuvering that led to the establishment of a united Italy, embodying principles of nationalism, liberalism, and strategic diplomacy while opposing conservative powers in Europe.
Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. This period saw the rise of ideas about human rights, democracy, and scientific rationalism, which significantly influenced political thought and revolutions across the globe.
Expedition of the Thousand: The Expedition of the Thousand was a military campaign led by Giuseppe Garibaldi in 1860 aimed at unifying Italy under a single national government. This event marked a significant moment in the rise of nationalism, as it mobilized popular support for the cause of Italian unification and highlighted the tension between revolutionary liberalism and conservative political structures of the time. The campaign ultimately played a crucial role in establishing a unified Italian state.
Franco-Prussian War: The Franco-Prussian War was a conflict fought between France and Prussia from 1870 to 1871, resulting in a decisive victory for the Prussians and the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership. This war was a significant turning point that intensified nationalist sentiments in both France and Germany, shaped the political landscape of Europe, and led to the emergence of liberalism and conservatism as powerful forces in shaping national identities.
French Revolution: The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, leading to the overthrow of the monarchy and the rise of republicanism. It was fueled by Enlightenment ideals, economic struggles, and widespread discontent with the existing political order, and it had a profound impact on the development of modern nation-states and global political ideologies.
Giuseppe Garibaldi: Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian general, nationalist, and key figure in the unification of Italy during the 19th century. He played a crucial role in the Risorgimento movement, which aimed to consolidate various Italian states into a single nation. His actions, driven by nationalist fervor, exemplified the clash between liberal aspirations for a more democratic government and conservative forces seeking to maintain the existing political order.
Giuseppe Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian politician, journalist, and activist known for his pivotal role in the promotion of Italian nationalism and the unification of Italy in the 19th century. His vision of a united Italy was rooted in liberal democratic ideals, emphasizing the importance of nationhood, popular sovereignty, and the rights of individuals, which often put him at odds with conservative forces of his time.
Holy Alliance: The Holy Alliance was a coalition formed in 1815 among the monarchs of Austria, Prussia, and Russia aimed at maintaining the conservative order in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. It was created to uphold the principles of monarchy and Christian values against the rise of nationalism and liberalism, reflecting the broader political struggle for power and stability in post-revolutionary Europe.
Imperialism: Imperialism is the policy or practice of extending a nation's authority by territorial acquisition or by establishing economic and political dominance over other nations. This concept has been critical in shaping global dynamics, influencing everything from international relations to cultural exchanges and conflicts.
Industrialization: Industrialization is the process by which economies transform from primarily agrarian and handicraft-based systems to ones dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. This transformation profoundly impacted social structures, economies, and global relationships, leading to urbanization, technological advancements, and significant changes in labor dynamics.
John Locke: John Locke was an English philosopher and political theorist in the 17th century, widely regarded as the father of liberalism. His ideas on the social contract, natural rights, and government by consent profoundly influenced Enlightenment thought, advocating for the protection of individual liberties and the idea that legitimate government is based on the consent of the governed. Locke's views were critical in shaping modern democracy and political philosophy.
Klemens von Metternich: Klemens von Metternich was an Austrian diplomat and statesman who played a pivotal role in shaping European politics during the early 19th century, especially during the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. As a leading figure in the conservative movement, he advocated for a balance of power in Europe to maintain stability and prevent the spread of nationalism and liberalism, which he viewed as threats to the established political order.
Liberalism: Liberalism is a political and economic philosophy that emphasizes individual freedoms, equality, and the protection of civil liberties, often advocating for democratic governance and free-market principles. This ideology emerged in response to the oppressive structures of absolutism and feudalism, and it laid the groundwork for modern political movements focused on rights and reforms.
Montesquieu: Montesquieu was a French philosopher and political thinker known for his ideas on the separation of powers within government, which greatly influenced modern political theory. His seminal work, 'The Spirit of the Laws,' argued that political authority should be divided into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent any one group from gaining too much power, aligning closely with Enlightenment ideals of rational governance and individual rights.
Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon Bonaparte was a military leader and emperor of France who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and its associated wars. His actions reshaped Europe through extensive military campaigns, leading to the establishment of a vast empire and significant political changes, especially in the context of nationalism and the political order that followed the revolutionary upheavals in America, France, and Haiti.
Napoleonic Wars: The Napoleonic Wars were a series of conflicts fought between 1803 and 1815, involving Napoleon Bonaparte's French Empire and various European coalitions. These wars reshaped the political landscape of Europe, as they were fueled by the rise of nationalism, the struggle between liberal and conservative ideals, and the quest for political order amidst revolutionary changes.
Nation-state: A nation-state is a political entity characterized by a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states, often with a strong sense of national identity and culture. This concept merges the cultural identity of a nation with the political organization of a state, playing a crucial role in shaping modern political landscapes and ideologies.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests, culture, and identity of a particular nation, often advocating for self-governance and independence. It played a crucial role in shaping revolutionary movements, political thought, and the responses to colonial rule throughout history.
Otto von Bismarck: Otto von Bismarck was a German statesman who served as the first Chancellor of the German Empire from 1871 to 1890, known for his role in unifying Germany through a series of wars and diplomatic strategies. His policies were characterized by realpolitik, emphasizing pragmatic and strategic decision-making, which significantly shaped nationalism, liberalism, conservatism, and the political order in Europe during the late 19th century.
Popular sovereignty: Popular sovereignty is the principle that the authority of a government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives. This idea emphasizes that the legitimacy of a state's authority comes from the will of the governed, which connects deeply with concepts like self-determination, democratic governance, and individual rights. It became a rallying point for various movements aiming for national identity, liberal reforms, and challenging conservative powers that resisted change.
Realpolitik: Realpolitik is a political philosophy that emphasizes practical and pragmatic approaches to governance, often prioritizing national interests and power over ideological or moral considerations. It suggests that political decisions should be based on the current realities of power dynamics rather than ideals or ethical norms, making it particularly relevant in discussions around statecraft and international relations.
Revolution: A revolution is a fundamental and rapid change in political power or organizational structures that occurs when the population rises up against the current authorities. This upheaval often leads to significant shifts in societal norms, government systems, and economic structures, reflecting deep-rooted desires for change driven by issues such as inequality, oppression, and national identity.
Risorgimento: Risorgimento refers to the social and political movement in the 19th century that aimed to unify the various states and territories on the Italian peninsula into a single nation-state. This movement was fueled by a growing sense of nationalism and a desire for independence from foreign domination, especially from Austria. The Risorgimento played a crucial role in shaping modern Italy, intertwining themes of nationalism, liberalism, and the struggle against conservatism, all of which contributed to the new political order in Europe.
Schleswig-Holstein Question: The Schleswig-Holstein Question refers to the complex political and territorial dispute regarding the status of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which were contested by Denmark and Germany during the 19th century. This dispute became a significant point of tension in European politics, highlighting issues of nationalism and national identity as various groups sought to assert control over these regions.
Self-determination: Self-determination is the principle that a group of people has the right to determine their own political status and pursue their own economic, social, and cultural development. This idea is closely tied to nationalism, as it encourages groups to seek autonomy or independence, often leading to the formation of nation-states and influencing global political dynamics, particularly after conflicts.
Social contract: The social contract is a philosophical concept that refers to an implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and abide by its rules and norms in exchange for protection and the benefits of collective living. This idea is central to understanding political authority, individual rights, and the legitimacy of government, particularly during revolutionary movements that sought to redefine governance and citizenship.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority of a state to govern itself without external interference. This concept is closely linked to the notions of national independence and the ability of a nation to control its own territory and make its own laws. In the context of revolutions and political ideologies, sovereignty is essential in understanding the struggles for self-determination, as well as the emergence of new political orders that prioritize the will of the people over monarchies or colonial powers.
Young Italy: Young Italy was a political movement founded in 1831 by Giuseppe Mazzini aimed at the unification of Italy and the establishment of a democratic republic. This organization played a significant role in promoting nationalist sentiments and liberal ideals, encouraging the youth to take an active part in the political transformation of Italy, reflecting the wider movements for nationalism and liberalism in 19th-century Europe.
Young Turks: The Young Turks were a reformist and nationalist political movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries within the Ottoman Empire. They aimed to modernize and secularize the empire, advocating for constitutional governance and greater representation, which were seen as necessary responses to the declining power of the Ottomans amid rising nationalism and external pressures.