11.1 Alliances, Expansion, and Conflict
4 min read•june 24, 2024
Europe in the early 20th century was a powder keg of tensions. Rival alliances, imperial competition, and military buildup created a volatile atmosphere. Nations were itching for a fight, with everyone thinking they'd come out on top.
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand lit the fuse. Within weeks, Europe's complex web of alliances dragged major powers into what would become World War I. Everyone had a plan, but no one was prepared for the brutal reality of modern warfare.
Alliances and Militarization in Early 20th Century Europe
Opposing Alliances
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- Formation of opposing alliances increased tensions and potential for large-scale conflict
- (1882) united Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy in a defensive pact
- (1907) brought together Great Britain, France, and Russia to counter the Triple Alliance
- Alliances created a false sense of security and emboldened member nations to pursue aggressive foreign policies
- Encouraged risk-taking and brinkmanship in international disputes
- Increased likelihood of a localized conflict (Balkans) escalating into a larger war involving multiple nations
- and military buildup heightened tensions and suspicions among European powers
- Germany's naval expansion (Tirpitz Plan) challenged British naval supremacy and sparked an arms race
- Russia's military reforms and modernization after its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) alarmed Germany and Austria-Hungary
- France's investment in its army and fortifications along the German border (Schlieffen Plan) raised concerns in Germany
- Militarization fostered a culture of war preparedness and in European societies
- Glorification of the military and war in popular culture (literature, art) and education (history, geography)
- Belief in the inevitability of war and the need to strike first to gain an advantage over rivals
Imperial Competition and the Outbreak of World War I
Scramble for Africa
- intensified rivalries and tensions among European colonial powers
- (1905 and 1911) between France and Germany over influence in North Africa nearly led to war
- British concerns over German colonial ambitions (Weltpolitik) and naval expansion strained relations between the two countries
- Balkans emerged as a flashpoint for Austro-Russian rivalry and nationalist tensions
- Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908) angered Serbia and Russia, which saw itself as the protector of Slavic peoples
- Russia's support for Serbia and other Slavic nationalists in the Balkans challenged Austria-Hungary's influence in the region
- Decline of the Ottoman Empire and the "Eastern Question" fueled competition among European powers
- European powers vied for influence and control over former Ottoman territories in the Balkans and Middle East (Bulgaria, Greece)
- (1912-1913) further destabilized the region and increased tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia
- Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (June 28, 1914) by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo, Bosnia triggered a chain reaction
- Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, which was rejected
- System of alliances and mobilization plans drew major European powers into the conflict within weeks
Military Strategies and War Plans
Schlieffen Plan
- Germany's Schlieffen Plan aimed for a rapid invasion and defeat of France through neutral Belgium and Luxembourg
- Goal was to avoid a prolonged two-front war by focusing on the Western Front first and then turning to face Russia in the East
- Relied on speed, surprise, and overwhelming force to encircle and destroy the French army in a matter of weeks
- France's Plan XVII called for an offensive strategy to retake Alsace-Lorraine, lost to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War (1871)
- Relied on the "élan vital" (vital force) and offensive spirit of the French army to overcome German defenses
- Assumed that Russia would mobilize quickly and draw German forces away from the Western Front
- Russia's Plan XIX involved mobilization and a two-pronged offensive against Germany and Austria-Hungary
- Aimed to protect Serbia and seize the initiative in the East by invading East Prussia and Galicia
- Slow mobilization and poor coordination hampered Russian efforts and led to early defeats (Tannenberg, Masurian Lakes)
- Britain's naval strategy focused on maintaining naval supremacy to protect its empire and trade routes
- Blockade of Germany to disrupt its economy and war effort by cutting off imports of food and raw materials
- Deployment of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) to support France and Belgium on the Western Front
- Austria-Hungary's war plans centered on a punitive campaign against Serbia to reassert its dominance in the Balkans
- Relied on German support in the event of Russian intervention, as outlined in the alliance agreements
- Underestimated Serbian resistance and Russian military capabilities, leading to early setbacks and a prolonged conflict
Key Terms to Review (18)
Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz: Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was a prominent German naval officer and strategist who served as State Secretary of the Imperial Naval Office from 1897 to 1916. He played a crucial role in expanding the German navy and promoting naval arms races, which heightened tensions between major powers and contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
Arms race: An arms race is a competition between nations to accumulate and develop military weapons and technology to gain a strategic advantage over one another. This phenomenon often leads to increased tensions and can escalate conflicts, as nations feel pressured to continually enhance their military capabilities. Arms races are characterized by cycles of build-up and response, often influenced by alliances and geopolitical dynamics.
Balance of Power: The balance of power is a political theory that suggests that national security is enhanced when military capability is distributed so that no one nation is strong enough to dominate all others. This concept connects to the dynamics of nationalism, liberalism, and conservatism, influencing the political order by fostering alliances and counter-alliances aimed at maintaining equilibrium among competing powers.
Balkan Wars: The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the early 20th century (1912-1913) among several Balkan states, primarily aimed at territorial expansion and the weakening of Ottoman control in the region. These wars were pivotal in reshaping the political landscape of Southeastern Europe, reflecting both national ambitions and the decline of Ottoman authority, setting the stage for further conflicts leading to World War I.
Diplomacy: Diplomacy is the practice of conducting negotiations and maintaining relationships between nations, aimed at achieving peaceful resolutions to conflicts and promoting cooperation. It often involves the use of representatives who engage in dialogue, treaties, and agreements to manage international relations effectively. Diplomacy is essential in creating alliances, addressing territorial expansion, and managing conflicts, influencing the balance of power in global affairs.
Dreadnought: The Dreadnought was a revolutionary battleship introduced by the British Royal Navy in 1906, characterized by its all-big-gun armament and steam turbine propulsion. This class of ship marked a significant shift in naval technology and strategy, leading to an arms race among global powers and intensifying existing alliances and rivalries.
Entente Cordiale: The Entente Cordiale was a series of agreements signed in 1904 between the United Kingdom and France, aimed at resolving colonial disputes and establishing a friendly diplomatic relationship. This marked a significant shift in European alliances, setting the stage for cooperation against potential threats from Germany and facilitating further expansionist ambitions by both nations, as they sought to counterbalance the growing power of the Central Powers.
Fashoda Incident: The Fashoda Incident was a standoff in 1898 between French and British forces in the Sudanese settlement of Fashoda, representing a significant moment in the scramble for Africa. This confrontation highlighted the imperial ambitions of both nations and escalated tensions, as each sought to assert dominance over Africa. The incident ultimately underscored the risks of colonial expansion and the delicate balance of power among European nations during this period of intense rivalry.
Franco-Russian Alliance: The Franco-Russian Alliance was a military and diplomatic agreement formed between France and Russia in 1894, aimed at countering the growing power of Germany and its influence in Europe. This alliance was a response to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, establishing a two-front potential conflict against Germany, which heightened tensions and contributed to the lead-up to World War I.
Geopolitics: Geopolitics refers to the study of the effects of geography on international politics and international relations. It encompasses how geographical factors such as location, resources, and physical terrain influence power dynamics, alliances, expansionist policies, and conflicts between nations. Understanding geopolitics is essential to grasping how countries navigate their interactions on the global stage, as these geographical considerations often shape national interests and foreign policy decisions.
Imperialism: Imperialism is the policy or practice of extending a nation's authority by territorial acquisition or by establishing economic and political dominance over other nations. This concept has been critical in shaping global dynamics, influencing everything from international relations to cultural exchanges and conflicts.
Militarism: Militarism is the belief in building up strong armed forces to prepare for war, often leading to an aggressive foreign policy. This ideology promotes the influence of military interests in political decisions and is closely tied to the arms race, as countries feel pressured to enhance their military capabilities in response to others. The rise of militarism was a crucial factor that contributed to tensions between nations and set the stage for conflicts, especially during the early 20th century.
Moroccan Crises: The Moroccan Crises refer to two significant international disputes involving Morocco, primarily between France and Germany, occurring in 1905 and 1911. These crises highlighted the intense competition for colonial expansion among European powers and set the stage for heightened tensions that contributed to World War I.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests, culture, and identity of a particular nation, often advocating for self-governance and independence. It played a crucial role in shaping revolutionary movements, political thought, and the responses to colonial rule throughout history.
Scramble for Africa: The Scramble for Africa refers to the rapid invasion, colonization, and annexation of African territory by European powers during the late 19th century. This period was marked by intense competition among European nations to claim African land, driven by economic, political, and social motives, leading to significant changes in the continent's political landscape and its relations with Europe.
Spheres of influence: Spheres of influence refer to regions where a particular country holds significant cultural, economic, military, or political influence, often without direct control or formal governance. This concept often reflects the dynamics of power relations among nations, particularly during the age of imperialism and in geopolitical contexts where nations competed for dominance in various regions.
Triple Alliance: The Triple Alliance was a military agreement formed in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy to provide mutual support in case of attack by France or Russia. This alliance significantly influenced European politics and military strategy leading up to World War I, as it represented a key aspect of the broader network of alliances that characterized this era.
Triple Entente: The Triple Entente was a military alliance formed in the early 20th century, consisting of France, Russia, and Great Britain. It aimed to counterbalance the threat posed by the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, shaping the political landscape leading up to World War I. The alliance was marked by diplomatic cooperation and mutual support among the three powers, particularly as tensions escalated in Europe.